1 


GIFT   OF 
MRS.   JOHN  W.  GILMORE 


UNIVERSITY  FARM 


LIBRARY  OF 
JOHN  W.  GILMORE 


COTTON  PLANT 


TEXTILES 


FOR  COMMERCIAL,   INDUSTRIAL,  AND   DOMESTIC 

ARTS  SCHOOLS;    ALSO  ADAPTED   TO  THOSE 

ENGAGED   IN  WHOLESALE  AND  RETAIL 

DRY  GOODS,   WOOL,  COTTON,  AND 

DRESSMAKER'S  TRADES 


BY 

WILLIAM    H.  DOOLEY 

PRINCIPAL    LOWELL    INDUSTRIAL   SCHOOL 
LOWELL,    MASS. 


REVISED  EDITION 
WITH  EXPERIMENTS 


D.  C.  HEATH  &  COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW   YORK  CHICAGO 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

LIBRARY 

QDLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
DAVIS 


COPYRIGHT,    1910,    1912,    AND    1914,    BY 
D.  C.  HEATH    AND    COMPANY 


1B4 


PREFACE 

THE  author  established  and  since  its  inception  has 
been  in  charge  of  the  first  industrial  school  for  boys 
and  girls  in  Massachusetts.  At  an  early  date  he  recog- 
nized the  need  of  special  text-books  to  meet  the  demand 
of  young  people  who  are  attending  vocational  schools. 
There  are  plenty  of  books  written  on  textiles  for  techni- 
cal school  students  and  advanced  workers.  But  the 
author  has  failed  to  find  a  book  explaining  the  manufac- 
ture and  testing  of  textiles  for  commercial,  industrial, 
domestic  arts,  and  continuation  schools,  and  for  those 
who  have  just  entered  the  textile  or  allied  trades.  This 
book  is  written  to  meet  this  educational  need.  Others 
may  find  the  book  of  interest,  particularly  the  chapters 
describing  cotton,  woolen,  worsted,  and  silk  fabrics. 

The  author  is  under  obligations  to  Mr.  Franklin  W. 
Hobbs,  treasurer  of  the  Arlington  Mills,  for  permission  to 
use  illustrations  and  information  from  literature  pub- 
lished by  the  Arlington  Mills;  to  Mr.  S.  H.  Ditchett, 
editor  of  Dry  Goods  Economist,  for  permission  to  use 
information  from  his  publication,  "Dry  Goods  Encyclo- 


vi  PREFACE 

pedia";  to  the  editor  of  the  Textile  Mercury;  to 
Frank  P.  Bennett,  of  the  American  Wool  and  Cotton 
Reporter,  for  permission  to  use  information  from  "Cot- 
ton Fabrics  Glossary";  and  to  the  instructors  of  the 
Lawrence  Industrial  School  for  valuable  information. 
In  addition,  information  has  been  obtained  from  the 
great  body  of  textile  literature,  which  the  author 
desires  to  acknowledge. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 
FIBERS 

PAGE 

Animal  Fibers  —  Wool,  Silk,  Mohair.  Vegetable  —  Cotton,  Flax, 
Jute,  Hemp.  Mineral  —  Asbestos,  Tinsel,  Metallic.  Remanu- 
factured  Material  —  Noils,  Mungo,  Shoddy,  Extract,  and 
Flocks.  Artificial  Fibers  —  Spun  Glass,  Artificial  Silk,  Slag 
Wool.  Structure  of  Wool.  Characteristics  of  Wool.  Classifi- 
cation of  Wool.  Carpet  and  Knitting  Wools.  Sheep  Shearing. 
Variation  in  Weight  of  Fleeces.  Shipping  the  Fleeces.  Value 
of  Wool  Business.  Saxony  and  Silesian  Wool,  Australian  Wool, 
Port  Philip  Wool,  Sydney  Wool,  Adelaide  Wool,  Van  Wool 
from  Tasmania,  New  Zealand  Wool,  Cape  Wools,  Wools  from 
South  America,  Russian  Wool,  Great  Britain  Wools,  Lincoln, 
Leicester,  Southdown,  Shropshire;  Cashmere  Wools,  Norfolk- 
down  and  Suffolkdown  Wools,  Cheviot  Wool,  Welsh  Wools, 
Shetland  Wools,  Irish  Wools,  Mohair,  Alpaca  Wool.  How  Wool 
is  Marketed 1 

CHAPTER  II 
WOOL  SORTING 

Sorting.  Classing  Grades  of  Wool.  Merino  Wool.  Difference 
between  Lamb's  and  Sheep's  Wool.  Pulled  Wool.  Delaine  Wool. 
Wool  Sorter.  Wool  Washing,  Wool  Drying,  Oiling.  Burring 
and  Carbonizing.  Bur  Picker,  Blending 16 

CHAPTER  III 
WOOL  SUBSTITUTES  AND  WASTE  PRODUCTS 

Wool  Substitutes  and  Waste  Remanufactured — Noils,  Shoddy,  and 
Mungo.  Methods  of  Producing  Shoddy  and  Mungo  —  Dusting, 
Sorting,  Seaming,  Oiling,  Grinding.  Extract  Wool.  Flocks  .  32 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV 
WORSTED  YARN 

Carding,  Combing.  Worsted  Tops  —  Gill  Boxes.  Different  methods 
of  Spinning  —  Bradford  or  English  System,  French  System. 
Structure  of  Worsted  Yarn.  Uses  of  Worsted  Yarn.  Counts 
of  Worsted  Yarn 39 


CHAPTER  V 
WOOLEN  YARN 

Operations  in  Producing  Woolen  Yarn  —  Washing,  Carding,  Spinning, 
Mule  Spinning.  Counts  of  Woolen  Yarn.  Uses  of  Woolen 
Yarn 50 


CHAPTER  VI 
WEAVING 

Preparatory  to  Weaving  —  Warp.  Weaving  —  Weaving  Processes, 
Classes  of  Weave  —  Plain  or  Homespun  Weave,  Twill,  Satin 
Weaves,  Figure  Weaving  (Jacquard  apparatus),  Double  Cloth, 
Pile  Weaving,  Gauze  Weaving,  Lappet  Weaving 53 


CHAPTER  VII 
DYEING  AND  FINISHING 

Dyeing.  Wool  Dyeing,  Piece  Dyed,  Cross  Dyed,  Yarn  Dyed.  Style 
-Designing,  Finishing,  Perching,  Burling,  Mending,  Fulling, 
Crabbing,  Tentering,  Napping,  Pressing.  Theories  of  Coloring 
in  Textile  Design.  Various  Methods  of  Employing  Fancy 
Shades.  Adulteration 65 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  VIII 
WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  FABRICS 

Albatross,  Alpaca,  Corded  Alpaca,  Angora,  Astrakhan,  Bandanna, 
Beaver  (Fur  Beaver),  Bedford  Cord,  Beige,  Bindings,  Bombazine, 
Bottany,  Boucle,  Broadcloth,  Bunting,  Caniche,  Cashmere, 
Cashmere  Double,  Cassimere,  Castor,  Challis,  Cheviot  (Diag- 
onal or  Chevron),  Chinchilla,  Chudah,  Corduroy,  Cote  Cheval, 
Coupure,  Covert,  Delaine,  Doeskin,  Drap  d'Ete,  Empress  Cloth, 
Epingline,  Etamine,  Felt,  Flannel,  Dress  Flannel,  French  Flan- 
nel, Shaker  Flannel,  Indigo  Blue,  Mackinaw,  Navy  Twilled 
Flannel,  Silk  Warp,  Baby  Flannel.  Florentine,  Foule,  Frieze, 
Gloria,  Granada,  Grenadine,  Henrietta  Cloth,  Homespun,  Hop 
Sacking,  Jeans,  Kersey,  Kerseymere,  Linsey  Woolsey,  Mel- 
rose,  Melton,  Meltonette,  Merino,  Mohair  Brilliantine,  Mon- 
tagnac,  Orleans,  Panama  Cloth,  Prunella,  Sacking,  Sanglier, 
Sebastopol,  Serge,  Shoddy,  Sicilian,  Sultane,  Tamise,  Tartans, 
Thibet,  Tricot,  Tweed,  Veiling,  Venetian,  Vigogne  (Vicuna), 
Vigoureux,  Voiles,  Whipcord,  Worsted  Diagonals,  Zephyr, 
Zibeline 83 

CHAPTER  IX 

COTTON 

Rough  Peruvian,  East  Indian,  Egyptian,  Sea  Island.  American 
Crop  —  Planting,  Picking,  Ginning  —  Roller  Gins,  Saw  Gins. 
Cotton  Gin.  Information  on  the  Leading  Growths  of  Cotton. 
Grades  —  Full  Grades,  Half  Grades,  Quarter  Grades.  Varieties 

—  Sea  Island   (selected),   Sea  Island   (ordinary),   Florida  Sea 
Island,   Georgia,  Egyptian,   Peeler,   Orleans  or    Gulf  Upland, 
Texas 105 

CHAPTER  X 
MANUFACTURE  OF  COTTON  YARN 

Picker  Room,  Carding  Machine,  Combing,  Drawing.     Flyer  Frames 

—  Intermediate  Frame,  Roving  Frame,  Fine  or  Jack  Frame 
Spinning  —  Mule  Spinning,  Ring  Spinning 125 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XI 
THREAD  AND  COTTON  FINISHING 

Manufacturing  Processes.  Thread  Numbers.  Sizing.  Cotton  Fin- 
ishing—  Bleaching,  Starching,  Calendering,  Mercerizing.  Char- 
acteristics of  fine  Cotton  Cloth 139 

CHAPTER  XII 
KNITTING 

Knitting  Machines.     Stripe  Knitting,   Knitting  Cotton,  Knitting 

Silk,  Hosiery  Manufacture,  Finishing  Process         153 

CHAPTER  XIII 

LACE 
Needlepoint  Lace.      Pillow  Lace.     Lace  Terms  Defined        .      .      .      164 

CHAPTER  XIV 
COTTON  FABRICS 

Albatross,  Awning,  Batiste,  Bourrette,  Bedford  Cord,  Buckram,  Calico, 
Cambric,  Canvas,  Chambray,  Cheesecloth,  Chine,  Chintz,  Cotton 
Flannel,  Crash,  Crepe,  Crepon,  Cretonne,  Crinoline,  Damask, 
Denim,  Diaper,  Dimity,  Domet,  Duck,  Drill,  Eolienne,  Etamine, 
Flannelette,  Fustian,  Galatea  Cloth,  Gauze,  Gingham,  Italian 
Cloth,  Jaconet,  Khaki,  Lawn,  Lingerie,  Linon,  Long  Cloth,  Ma- 
dras, Moreen,  Mull,  Mummy,  Muslin,  Nainsook,  Organdie,  Osna- 
burg,  Percale,  Percaline,  Pique,  Poplin,  Plumetis,  Rep,  Sateen, 
Scrim,  Silesia,  Souffle,  Swiss,  Tarletan,  Tape,  Terry  Cloth,  Zephyr 
Gingham 173 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  XV 
FLAX 

Physical  Structure.  Uses.  Mechanical  Processes  —  Crushing  or 
Beating,  Breaking,  Scutching,  Hackling,  Bleaching.  Charac- 
teristics of  Good  Linen,  Notes  on  Table  Linen 193 

CHAPTER  XVI 
HEMP 

Bast  Fibers,  Sisal  Hemp,   Manila  Hemp,  Ramie,  Jute       .      .      .      199 

CHAPTER  XVII 
SILK 

Cocoons.  Raw  Silk.  Silk-producing  Countries  —  China,  Japan, 
Italy,  Southern  France,  Greece,  Turkey,  Western  Asia.  Throw- 
ing. Thrown  Silk  —  Tram,  Crepe  Yarn.  Embroidery  Silk. 
Sewing  Silk.  Silk  Waste,  Spun  Silk,  Floss  Silk.  Ribbons,  Silk 
Thread,  Silk  Cord.  Dyeing  Yarns.  Silk  Dyeing.  Logwood 
Black  Silk  Dyeing  —  (1)  Boiling  Off,  (2)  Mordanting,  (3)  Blue 
Bottoming,  (4)  "  Weighting"  Bath,  (5)  Mordanting,  (6)  Dyeing. 
Colored  Silks.  Mixed  Silk  Fabrics.  Ribbons,  Velvets,  Print- 
ing, Finishing,  Waterproofing 203 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
PRINCIPAL  SILK  FABRICS 

Alma,  Barege,  Bengaline,  Berber,  Brocade,  Brocatel,  Bombazine, 
Chenille,  Chiffon,  China  Silk,  Crepe,  Crepe  de  Chine,  Eolienne, 
Foulard,  Glace,  India  Silk,  Japanese  Silk,  Jersey  Cloth,  Meteor, 
Moire,  Mozambique,  Organzine,  Panne,  Peau  de  Soie,  Plush, 


xii  CONTENTS 

Pongee,  Popeline,  Poplin,  Figured  Poplin,  Terry  Poplin,  Sarsenet, 
Satin,  Soleil,  Taffeta,  Tulle,  Velour,  Velvet,  Velveteen,  Tabby 
Velvet,  Voile 219 


CHAPTER  XIX 

ARTIFICIAL  SILK 

Silk  Cotton,  Artificial  Silk,  Tests 230 

CHAPTER  XX 
SUBSTITUTES  FOR  COTTON 

Wool     Pulp,    Ramie,     Pineapple    Fibers,    Spun     Glass,    Metallic 

Threads,  Slag  Wool,  Asbestos 232 

APPENDIX 

Determining  Style  of  Weave.  Tests  for  Strength  and  Elasticity. 
Determining  Count  of  Warp  and  Filling,  Shrinkage,  Weight. 
Tests  for  Constituents  of  Warp  and  Filling,  for  Vegetable  and 
Animal  Fibers.  Acid  Test.  Cotton  Distinguished  from  Linen, 
Silk  from  Wool,  Artificial  Silk  from  Silk.  Test  for  Shoddy.  De- 
termination of  Dressing.  Test  for  Permanence  of  Dyes  .  .  .  235 

History  of  Textiles.  History  of  the  Organization  of  Textile  Indus- 
tries. History  of  Manufacturing.  History  of  Lace  ....  245 

EXPERIMENTS 
Experiments  1  to  62 267 

Sources  of  Supply , 319 

INDEX  .  323 


TEXTILES 


CHAPTER   I 
FIBERS 

ALL  the  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  clothing 
are  called  textiles  and  are  made  of  either  long  or  short 
fibers.  These  fibers  can  be  made  into  a  continuous 
thread.  When  two  different  sets  of  threads  are  inter- 
laced, the  resulting  product  is  called  cloth. 

The  value  of  any  fiber  for  textile  purposes  depends 
entirely  upon  the  possession  of  such  qualities  as  firm- 
ness, length,  curl,  softness,  elasticity,  etc.,  which  adapt  it 
for  spinning.  The  number  of  fibers  that  possess  these 
qualities  is  small,  and  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

Animal  Fibers:  Wool,  Silk,  Mohair. 

Vegetable    Fibers:    Cotton,    Flax,    Jute,    Hemp,    etc. 

Mineral  Fibers:  Asbestos,  Tinsel,  and  other  metal- 
lic fibers. 

Remanufactured  Material:  Noils,  Mungo,  Shoddy, 
Extract,  and  Flocks. 

Artificial  Fibers:  Spun  Glass,  Artificial  Silk,  and 
Slag  Wool. 

The  Structure  of  Wool.  A  large  part  of  the  people 
of  the  world  have  always  used  wool  for  their  clothing. 
Wool  is  the  soft,  curly  covering  which  forms  the  fleecy 


TEXTILES 


coat  of  the  sheep  and  similar  animals,  such  as  the 
goat  and  alpaca.  Wool  fiber  when  viewed  under 
the  microscope  is  seen  to  consist 
roughly  of  three  parts: 

1st.  Epidermis,  or  outer  surface, 
which  is  a  series  of  scales  lying  one 
upon  the  other. 

2d.  Cortex,  or  intermediate  sub- 
stance, consisting  of  angular,  elongated 
cells,  which  give  strength  to  the  wool. 
3d.  Medulla,  or  pith  of  the  fiber. 
Difference  between  Wool  and  Hair. 
Not  all  animal  fibers  are  alike.  They 
vary  in  fineness,  softness,  length,  and 
strength,  from  the  finest  Merino  wool  to 
the  rigid  bristles  of  the  wild  boar.  At 
just  what  point  it  can  be  said  that  the  animal  fiber  ceases 
to  be  wool  and  becomes  hair,  is  difficult  to  determine, 
because  there  is  a  gradual  and  imperceptible  gradation 
from  wool  to  hair.1  The  distinction  between  wool  and 
hair  lies  chiefly  in  the  great  fineness,  softness,  and  wavy 
delicacy  of  the  woolen  fiber,  combined  with  its  highly  ser- 
rated surf  ace —  upon  which  the  luster  of  the  wool  depends. 
Characteristics  of  Wool.  The  chief  characteristic 
of  wool  is  its  felting  or  shrinking  power.  This  felting 
property  from  which  wool  derives  much  of  its  value,  and 
which  is  its  special  distinction  from  hair,  depends  in 
part  upon  the  kinks  in  the  fiber,  but  mainly  upon  the 


WOOL    FIBER 
Highly  magnified 


1  Hair  is  straight  and  glossy,  stronger  and  smoother  than  wool,  and 
grows  sometimes  as  long  as  twenty  inches. 


FIBERS  3 

scales  with  which  the  fiber  is  covered.  These  scales 
or  points  are  exceedingly  minute,  ranging  from  about 
1,100  to  the  inch  to  nearly  3,000.  The  stem  of  the  fiber 
itself  is  extremely  slender,  being  less  than  one  thou- 
sandth of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  good  felting  wools 
the  scales  are  more  perfect  and  numerous,  while  infe- 
rior wools  generally  possess  fewer  serrations,  and  are 
less  perfect  in  structure. 

In  the  process  of  felting  the  fibers  become  entangled 
with  one  another,  and  the  little  projecting  scales  hook 
into  one  another  and  hold  the  fibers  closely  interlocked. 
The  deeper  these  scales  fit  into  one  another  the  closer 
becomes  the  structure  of  the  thread. 

Classification  of  Wool.  The  various  kinds  of  wool 
used  in  commerce  are  named  either  from  the  breed  of 
the  sheep  or  from  the  country  or  locality  in  which  the 
sheep  are  reared.  Thus  we  get  Merino  wool  from 
Merino  sheep,  while  English,  American,  and  Australian 
wools  are  named  from  the  respective  countries.  As 
the  result  of  cross  breeding  of  different  sheep  in  different 
parts  of  the  world,  under  different  climatic  conditions, 
physical  surroundings,  and  soil,  there  exist  a  great  many 
varieties  of  wool.  The  wool  of  commerce  is  divided 
into  three  great  classes:  (1)  Short  wool  or  clothing  wool 
(also  called  carding  wool),  seldom  exceeding  a  length  of 
two  to  four  inches ;  (2)  long  wool  or  combing  wool,  vary- 
ing from  four  to  ten  inches;  (3)  carpet  and  knitting 
wools,  which  are  long,  strong,  and  very  coarse. 

The  distinction  between  clothing  or  carding  wools 
on  the  one  hand,  and  combing  wools  on  the  other,  is  an 


4  TEXTILES 

old  one.  Combing  wools  are  so  called  because  they 
are  prepared  for  spinning  l  into  yarn  by  the  process  of 
"  combing  "  -  that  is,  the  fibers  are  made  to  lie  parallel 
with  one  another  preparatory  to  being  spun  into  thread. 
Carding  wools  —  made  to  cross  and  interlace  and  inter- 
lock with  one  another  —  are  shorter  than  combing  wools, 
and  in  addition  they  possess  to  a  much  greater  degree 
the  power  of  felting  —  that  is,  of  matting  together  in  a 
close  compact  mass.  Combing  wools,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  not  only  longer  than  the  carding  wools,  but 
they  are  also  harder,  more  wiry,  and  less  inclined  to  be 
spiral  or  kinky.  It  must  be  understood,  however, 
that  under  the  present  methods  of  manufacture,  short' 
wools  may  be  combed  and  spun  by  the  French  method 
of  spinning  just  as  the  long  wools  are  combed  and  spun 
by  the  Bradford  or  English  system. 

Carpet  and  knitting  wools  are  the  cheapest,  coarsest, 
and  harshest  sorts  of  wools.  They  come  principally 
from  Russia,  Turkey,  China,  Greece,  Peru,  Chili, 
etc.,  and  from  the  mountain  districts  of  England  and 
Scotland.  Carpet  wools  approach  more  nearly  to  hair 
than  other  wools.  The  only  staple  of  this  class  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  is  grown  on  the  original 
Mexican  sheep  of  the  great  Southwest.  Few  of  these 
Mexican  sheep  are  left,  for  they  have  been  improved 
by  cross  breeding,  but  they  constitute  the  founda- 
tion stock  of  most  of  our  Western  flocks,  which  now 
produce  superior  clothing  and  combing  wool. 

1  Spinning  is  a  process  by  which  long  or  short  fibers  are  twisted  into 
a  continuous  thread. 


FIBERS  5 

Sheep  Shearing.  In  order  to  get  an  idea  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  sheep  industry  in  the  United  States,  one 
must  take  a  glance  at  its  condition  in  the  big  states  of 
the  West.  Wyoming  has  more  than  4,600,000  sheep 


SHEEP   SHEARING 

within  its  borders.  Montana,  which  held  the  record 
until  1909,  has  4,500,000  sheep.  Then  comes  Idaho  with 
2,500,000,  Oregon  with  2,000,000,  and  so  on  down  the  list 
until  the  nation's  total  reaches  40,000,000  sheep,  four- 
fifths  of  which  are  west  of  the  Missouri  river. 


6  TEXTILES 

To  harvest  the  wool  from  such  an  enormous  num- 
ber of  backs  is  a  task  that  calls  for  expert  shearers, 
men  who  can  handle  the  big  shears  of  the  machine 
clippers  with  a  skill  that  comes  from  long  practise. 
The  shearing  must  be  done  at  the  right  time  of  the 
year.  If  the  wool  is  clipped  too  early,  the  sheep  suffer 
from  the  cold;  if  the  shearing  comes  too  late,  the  sheep 
suffer  from  intense  heat,  and  in  either  case  are  bound 
to  lose  weight  and  value. 

To  meet  the  exacting  conditions  a  class  of  men  has 
risen  expert  in  the  sheep-shearing  business.  These 
shearers  begin  work  in  southern  and  middle  California, 
Utah,  etc.  Another  month  finds  them  busy  in  the  great 
sheep  states  of  Wyoming,  Montana,  Idaho,  and  Oregon, 
where  they  find  steady  employment  until  July,  when 
they  go  to  the  ranges  of  Canada.  In  this  way  the 
shearers  keep  busy  nearly  all  the  year,  and  at  high  wages. 

The  Mexicans  are  particularly  expert  with  the  hand 
shears,  though  this  form  of  clipping  is  being  done  away 
with,  owing  to  the  installation  of  power  plants  for 
machine  shearing.  These  plants  are  installed  at  various 
points  on  the  great  sheep  ranges.  Long  sheds  are 
erected  and  shafting  extends  down  both  sides  of  the 
shearing  place.  Twenty  or  more  shearers  will  be 
lined  up  in  one  of  these  sheds,  each  man  operating  a 
clipping  machine  connected  with  the  shafting.  The 
sheep  are  brought  in  from  the  range  in  bands  of  2,500 
or  more,  and  are  put  in  the  corrals  adjoining  the  shear- 
ing sheds.  Then  they  are  driven  down  chutes  to  the 
shearers. 


FIBERS  7 

A  shearer  reaches  into  a  small  corral  behind  him 
and  pulls  out  a  sheep.  With  a  dextrous  fling  the  animal 
is  put  in  a  sitting  posture  between  the  shearer's  knees, 
and  then  the  steel  clippers  begin  clipping  off  the  wool. 
The  machine-shearing  saves  much  wool,  as  it  gets 
closer  to  the  skin  of  the  sheep  and  shears  more  evenly. 
In  fact,  some  sheep  owners  say  that  the  increased 
weight  of  their  fleeces  at  each  shearing  is  enough  to  pay 
the  extra  expense  of  running  a  power  plant. 

As  fast  as  the  sheep  are  turned  out  by  the  shearers 
they  are  run  along  a  narrow  chute  and  each  one 
is  branded.  The  branding  mark  is  usually  a  letter 
painted  on  the  back  of  the  sheep  so  that  it  can  be  plainly 
seen  when  they  are  coming  through  a  chute.  The 
mark  remains  on  the  fleece  and  is  always  easily  distin- 
guished. 

Fleece.  There  is  a  great  variation  in  the  weight  of 
fleeces.  Some  sheep,  such  as  those  on  the  best  ranges 
in  Oregon,  Montana,  and  Wyoming,  will  average  an 
eight-pound  fleece  full  of  natural  oil,  while  sheep  from 
the  more  sterile  alkaline  ranges  of  New  Mexico  will 
not  average  much  more  than  five  pounds  of  wool. 

The  shearing  season  on  the  plains  is  much  like  the 
threshing  season  in  agricultural  communities.  With 
a  crew  of  first-class  shearers  working  in  a  shearing 
shed,  it  is  not  long  until  the  floor  is  a  sea  of  wool.  Boys 
are  kept  busy  picking  up  the  fleeces,  tying  them  into 
compact  bundles,  and  throwing  them  to  the  men  who 
have  been  assigned  to  the  task  of  filling  the  wool  sacks. 
These  sacks,  which  hold  about  400  pounds,  are 


8  TEXTILES 

suspended  from  a  wooden  framework,  and  as  fast  as  the 
fleeces  are  thrown  in,  they  are  tramped  down  until  the 
sacks  will  not  hold  a  pound  more.  Most  of  the  sacks 
are  shipped  to  warehouses  in  such  wool  centers  as 
Casper,  Wyoming,  or  Billings,  Montana,  the  latter 
place  being  the  greatest  wool  shipping  center  in  the 
world.  Here  they  are  sold  to  Eastern  buyers,  who 
examine  the  clips  at  their  leisure  and  make  their  bids. 

Value  of  Wool  Business.  Some  idea  of  the  fortunes 
at  stake  in  the  wool  business  can  be  gathered  from 
the  fact  that  the  total  wool  product  of  the  country 
in  1909  was  valued  at  $78,263,165.  It  is  expected 
that  the  returns  from  the  wool  clip  in  a  fairly  good 
year  will  pay  all  a  sheepman's  running  expenses,  such 
as  hire  of  herders,  cost  of  shearing,  etc.  He  then  has  the 
sale  of  his  lambs  as  clear  profit.  Enormous  fortunes 
are  being  made  in  the  sheep  business  in  the  west,  owing 
to  the  high  price  of  wool  and  mutton. 

Saxony  and  Silesian  Wool.  Among  wools  of  all 
classes  the  Saxony  and  Silesian  take  the  first  place, 
and  for  general  good  qualities,  fineness,  and  regularity  of 
fiber,  they  are  unequalled.  The  fiber  is  short  in  staple, 
possesses  good  felting  properties,  and  is  strong  and 
elastic.  This  wool  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture 
of  cloths  where  much  milling1  is  required,  such  as 
superfines  and  dress-faced  fabrics. 

Australian  Wools.  Australia  furnishes  wools  of  a 
superior  character,  and  some  of  the  choicest  clips  rival 

1 A  process  of  finishing  cloth  by  condensing  the  fibers  so  as  to  make 
the  cloth  stronger  and  firmer. 


FIBERS  9 

the  Saxony  and  Silesian  wools.  They  are  used  both 
for  worsted1  and  woolen  yarns.  They  are  generally 
strong  and  of  an  elastic  character,  possess  numerous 
serrations,  and  are  of  good  color,  with  good  felting 
properties.  The  principal  Australian  wools  are  Port 
Philip,  Sydney,  and  Adelaide  wools.  These  are  the 
best  brands  imported  from  that  country. 

Port  Philip  Wool.  Port  Philip  wool  is  suitable 
for  either  worsted  or  woolen  yarns.  The  fiber  is  not 
quite  as  fine  as  Saxony,  but  it  makes  a  good  thread,  is 
fairly  sound  in  staple,  and  is  of  good  length  and  color. 
It  is  very  wavy  and  serrated.  The  longest  and  best  of 
this  wool  is  used  for  the  very  finest  worsted  yarns,  and 
will  spin  up  to  130's  counts.2  The  sheep  are  descend- 
ants of  the  original  Spanish  Merino.  Cross  bred  Port 
Philip  wool  is  from  the  same  Merino  sheep  crossed  with 
Leicesters,  which  yield  a  medium  quality  fleece  of  sound 
fiber  and  good  quality  for  spinning  counts  from  40's  to 
56's.  The  yarn  has  a  bright,  clear  appearance. 

Sydney  Wools.  Sydney  wools  are  moderately  fine 
in  fiber  and  of  medium  length.  They  are  rather  defi- 
cient in  strength,  uneven  in  color,  and  often  contain 
yellow  locks  which  make  them  undesirable  when  re- 
quired for  dyeing  light  shades.  They  are  used  for 
nearly  the  same  purpose  as  Port  Philip  wools,  but  do 
not  spin  quite  as  far  in  worsted  yarns,  nor  are  they 
equal  in  milling  qualities. 

1  See  footnote,  page  39. 

2  The  size  of  yarn  is  technically  called  the  "counts"  and  is  based 
on  the  number  of  560  yard  lengths  required  to  weigh  one  pound.     In 
this  case  130's  count  =  130  X  560,  or  72,800  yards  of  yarn  to  a  pound. 


10  TEXTILES 

Adelaide  Wool.  Adelaide  wool  has  a  reputation 
for  sound  Merinos,  the  average  quality  being  a  little 
lower  than  for  the  Port  Philip  and  Sydney  wools.  Its 
fiber  is  moderately  fine,  but  not  of  uniform  length;  its 
color  is  not  so  good,  and  it  contains  a  large  amount  of 
yolk.1  Adelaide  wool  is  used  for  worsted  dress  goods, 
weft  (filling)  2  yarn  up  to  60's,  and  certain  worsted 
warps.2  It  is  used  for  medium  fancy  woolens. 

Van  Wool  from  Tasmania.  The  climate  of  this 
island  is  well  suited  to  the  growing  of  wool,  and  pro- 
duces excellent  qualities,  fine  in  fiber,  of  good  length, 
and  strong  in  the  staple,  which  will  spin  as  high  counts 
as  70's  and  80's  worsted.  This  wool  is  useful  for  mix- 
ing with  other  good  wools.  Its  color  is  very  white, 
which  makes  it  a  useful  wool  for  dyeing  light  shades. 
Its  milling  properties  are  good,  and  the  shorter  sorts 
are  suitable  for  woolens. 

New  Zealand  Wools  are  very  supple,  which  make 
them  valuable  to  the  spinner.  These  wools  are  suitable 
for  almost  all  classes  of  Merino  and  crossbred  yarns. 
They  are  of  good  length,  sound  staple,  have  good  felting 
properties,  and  are  of  good  color.  They  are  useful  for 
blending  with  mungo  and  shoddy,  to  give  to  these 
remanufactured  materials  that  springy,  bulky  character 
which  they  lack. 

Cape  Wools.  Cape  Colony  and  Natal  produce 
merino  wool  that  is  somewhat  short  in  staple,  rather 
tender,  and  less  wavy  than  some  other  wools.  The 

1  An  encrusting  compound  of  dirt  and  grease  formed  on  the  fleece. 

2  See  page  54. 


FIBERS 


11 


sheep  are  not  so  well  cared  for,  and  are  fed  on  the  leaves 
of  a  small  shrub.  The  absence  of  grass  leaves  the 
ground  very  sandy,  and  this  makes  the  fleece  heavy 
and  dirty.  Its  color  is  fair,  but  it  lacks  elasticity.  It 
is  used  chiefly  to  cheapen  blends1  of  60's  top.2  The 
short  wool  is  combed  for  thick  counts  for  weft  and 


MERINO    SHEEP 

hosiery,  and  is  also  used  for  shawls  and  cloths  where 
felting  is  not  an  essential  feature. 

Wools  from  South  America.  These  wools  are  of 
the  same  standard  of  excellence  as  the  Australian 
wools,  but  they  are  generally  deficient  in  strength  and 
elasticity.  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo  wools  are 
fairly  fine  in  fiber,  but  lack  strength  and  elasticity, 
and  are  deficient  in  milling  properties;  they  are  also 

1  Mixtures.     2  After  wool  fibers  are  combed  they  are  called  top. 


12  TEXTILES 

burry.  The  climate  suits  the  sheep  well,  and  the  feed 
is  good,  but  the  careless  methods  of  classing  and  pack- 
ing have  earned  for  these  wools  a  poor  reputation 
that  is  well  deserved. 

The  best  60's  wool  is  combed  in  oil,  but  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  shorter  is  combed  and  used  in  thick  counts, 
-  20's  to  36's  worsted  for  the  hosiery  trade. 

Russian  Wool.  The  staple  of  this  is  generally  strong, 
and  the  fibers  are  of  a  medium  thickness;  the  color  is 
milky  white.  It  is  useful  to  blend  with  Australian  or 
other  good  wools.  It  produces  a  good  yarn,  and  is  very 
often  used  in  the  fancy  woolen  trade  and  in  fabrics 
that  require  to  be  finished  in  the  natural  color. 

Great  Britain  Wools.  These  may  be  divided  into 
three  groups:  (1)  long  wools,  of  which  the  Lincoln  and 
Leicester  are  typical  examples;  (2)  short  wools,  which 
include  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Suffolk,  and  others; 
and  (3)  wool  from  the  mountain  or  hilly  breeds  of  sheep, 
such  as  the  Cheviot,  Scotch  Blackface,  Shetland,  Irish, 
and  Welsh. 

Lincoln  Wool  is  a  typical  wool  obtained  from  the 
long  wool  sheep,  and  noted  for  its  long,  lustrous  fiber, 
which  is  silky  and  strong.  The  staple  varies  from 
ten  to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  the  average  fleece 
will  yield  from  ten  to  fourteen  pounds  in  weight. 

Leicester  Wool  has  a  somewhat  finer  fiber  than  Lin- 
coln. It  is  a  valuable  wool,  of  good  color,  uniform  and 
sound  in  staple,  curly,  with  good,  bright  luster  and 
no  dark  hairs.  While  luster  wools  are  grown  exten- 
sively in  England,  they  also  grow  in  Indiana  and 


FIBERS  13 

Kentucky,  and  are  commonly  known  in  the  trade  as 
braid  wool. 

Southdown  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  short 
staple  wools.  It  possesses  a  fine  hair,  is  close  and 
wavy,  and  fairly  sound  in  staple,  but  rather  deficient  in 
milling  qualities.  The  shorter  varieties  are  carded 


WOOL    MARKET    AT    BUENOS    AYRES 

and  made  into  flannels  and  other  light  fabrics,  while 
the  longer  qualities  are  used  in  the  production  of  worsted 
goods.  The  weight  of  a  Southdown  fleece  averages 
from  four  to  five  pounds. 

Shropshiredown  wool  is  of  good  quality,  with  strong, 
fine,  lustrous  fiber,  of  good  length.  It  resembles  South- 
down, but  is  not  as  lustrous  as  mohair,  the  natural 
colors  being  either  white,  black,  brown,  or  fawn.  It  is 
used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  dress  goods. 

Cashmere  Wool  is  the  fine,  woolly,  extremely  soft, 
white  or  gray  fur  of  the  Cashmere  goat  which  is  bred 
in  Thibet.  There  are  two  kinds  of  fiber  obtained:  one, 


14  TEXTILES 

which  is  really  the  outer  covering,  consists  of  long 
tufts  of  hair;  underneath  this  is  the  Cashmere  wool  of 
commerce,  a  soft,  downy  wool  of  a  brownish-gray  tint, 
with  a  fine,  silky  fiber.  It  is  used  for  making  the 
costly  oriental  (Indian)  shawls  and  the  finest  wraps. 

The  Norfolkdown  and  Suffolkdown  Wools  are  fairly 
fine  in  fiber  and  soft,  but  slightly  deficient  in  strength 
and  elasticity. 

Cheviot  Wool  may  be  taken  as  representative  of  the 
hilly  breeds  of  sheep.  It  is  an  average  wool,  with 
staple  of  medium  length,  soft,  and  with  strong  and 
regular  fiber;  it  is  of  a  good,  bright  color,  and 
possesses  desirable  milling  properties,  being  used  for 
both  woolen  and  worsted,  but  chiefly  in  the  fancy 
woolen  trade.  The  average  weight  of  the  fleece  is 
about  4|  pounds.  The  black-faced  or  Highland  breed 
yields  a  medium  wool,  coarser  and  more  shaggy  than 
the  Cheviot,  and  varying  much  in  quality.  It  is 
almost  all  used  in  the  production  of  rugs,  carpets,  and 
blankets. 

Welsh  Wools  lack  waviness  and  fineness  of  fiber. 
They  are  chiefly  used  for  flannels. 

Shetland  Wools  are  similar  in  character  to  Welsh 
wools,  but  slightly  finer  in  fiber  and  softer.  They  are 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  knitted  goods,  such  as 
shawls  and  wraps.  They  lack  felting  properties. 

Irish  Wools  possess  a  strong,  thick  hair  of  moderate 
length  and  fine  color.  They  are  similar  in  many 
respects  to  the  Welsh  wools,  and  are  often  classed  with 
them.  They  are  used  in  the  production  of  low  and 


FIBERS  15 

medium  tweeds  —  fancy  woolen  cloths  not  requiring 
small  yarns  or  milling  qualities. 

Mohair  is  a  lustrous  wool  obtained  from  the  Angora 
goat,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  district  of  Asia 
Minor  from  which  it  comes.  These  animals  have  also 
been  successfully  bred  in  Spain  and  France.  The  hair 
is  pure  white,  fine,  wavy,  and  of  good  length,  and 
possesses  a  high  luster.  It  is  used  in  making  plushes, 
velvets,  astrakhans,  and  curled  fabrics,  also  half  silk 
goods  and  fine  wraps. 

Alpaca  Wool  is  the  fleece  of  the  Peruvian  sheep, 
which  is  a  species  of  llama.  The  staple  is  of  good 
length  and  soft,  but  is  not  quite  as  lustrous  as  mohair, 
the  natural  colors  being  either  white,  black,  brown,  or 
fawn.  It  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  dress 
goods. 

How  Wool  is  Marketed.  The  bulk  of  the  wool  of 
commerce  comes  into  the  market  in  the  form  of  fleece 
wool,  the  product  of  a  single  year's  growth,  and  cut 
from  the  body  of  the  animal  usually  in  April  or  May. 
The  first  and  finest  clip,  called  lamb's  wool,  may  be 
taken  from  the  young  sheep  at  the  age  of  eight  to 
twelve  months.  All  subsequently  cut  fleeces  are  known 
as  wether  wool  and  possess  relatively  somewhat  less 
value  than  the  first  clip. 


CHAPTER   II 
WOOL   SORTING 

FLEECE  wool  as  it  comes  to  the  mill  is  rolled  up  in 
bundles  and  must  be  sorted.  This  process  consists  in 
sorting  and  classifying  the  fibers  of  the  fleece.  Not  only 
do  the  various  species  of  sheep  furnish  widely  different 
qualities  of  wool,  but  different  qualities  are  obtained 
from  the  same  animal,  according  to  the  part  of  the  body 
from  which  the  wool  is  taken.  This  variation  in  some 
instances  is  very  marked,  and  sometimes  is  greater 
than  that  which  separates  the  wools  of  the  different 
breeds  of  sheep.  Hence  the  sorting  and  classing  of 
wool  become  necessary  for  the  production  of  good, 
.sound  yarn  of  even  quality. 

An  attempt  to  utilize  the  fleece  as  a  whole  would  result 
in  the  spinning  of  uneven,  faulty,  and  unsatisfactory 
yarns.  As  many  as  twelve  or  fourteen  sorts  may  be 
obtained  from  one  fleece  (by  very  fine  sorting),  but 
generally  not  more  than  five  or  seven  are  made.  The 
following  table  shows  the  relative  qualities  of  wools 
from  the  various  parts  of  a  Merino  sheep: 

1  and  2.  Head  (top  and  sides):  The  wools  grown  on 
these  parts  are  remarkable  for  length  of  staple,  softness, 
and  uniformity  of  character.  They  are  usually  the 
choicest  wools  in  the  fleece. 

16 


WOOL   SORTING 


17 


3.  Upper  part  of  the  back:  This  also  is  a  wool  of  good, 
sound  quality,  resembling  in  staples  Nos.  1  and  2,  but 
not  as  soft  or  as  fine  of  fiber. 

4.  Loin  and  back:  The  staple  here  is  comparatively 
short,  not  as  fine,  but  generally  of  unvarying  character, 
sometimes  rather  tender. 


SORTING    ROOM 

5.  Upper  parts  of  legs:  This  wool  is  medium  in  length 
but  coarse  of  fiber,  and  has  a  tendency  to  hang  in  loose, 
open  locks.     It  is  generally  sound,  but  likely  to  con- 
tain vegetable  matter. 

6.  Upper   portion   of   the   neck:    The    staple    clipped 
from  this  part  of  the  neck  is  of  an  inferior  quality, 
frequently  faulty  and  irregular  in  growth,  and  contains 
twigs,  thorns,  etc. 


18  TEXTILES 

7.  Central  part  of  the  neck:    This  wool  is  similar  to 
No.  6  but  rather  tender  in  staple. 

8.  Belly:  This  wool  is  from  under  the  sheep,  between 
the  fore  and  hind  legs.     It  is  short  and  dirty,  poor  in 
quality,  and  generally  tender. 

9.  Root  of  tail:  In  this  wool  the  fibers  are  coarse, 
short,  and  glossy. 

10.  Lower  parts  of  the  legs:    This  wool  is  generally 
dirty  and  greasy,  the  staple  having  no  wave  and  lack- 
ing fineness.     It  is  generally  burry  and  contains  much 
vegetable  matter. 

11.  Front  of  Head;  12.  Throat;    13.  Chest:   The  wools 
from  these    parts  are  sometimes    classed    together,  all 
having    the  same   characteristics.      The    fiber    is   stiff, 
straight,  coarse,  and  covered  with  fodder. 

14.  Shins:  This  is  another  short,  thick,  straight 
wool  of  glossy  fiber,  commonly  known  as  shanks. 

Classing.  Classing  is  a  grading  of  the  fleeces,  and 
is  usually,  but  not  always,  a  process  preliminary  to 
sorting.  It  is  an  important  part  of  sorting,  and  when 
well  done  greatly  facilitates  the  making  of  good, 
uniform  matchings. 

Grades  of  Wool.  In  the  grading  of  wool  no  set 
standard  of  quality  exists.  The  same  classification 
may  be  applied  in  different  years,  or  in  different  locali- 
ties, to  qualities  of  wool  showing  much  variation,  the 
best  grade  obtainable  usually  setting  the  standard  for 
the  lower  grades.  The  highest  quality  of  wool  in  the 
United  States  is  found  on  full-blooded  Merino  sheep. 

Merino  Wool.     The  Merino  sheep  was  bred  for  wool 


WOOL   SORTING  19 

and  not  mutton.  The  fleece  of  this  breed  is  fine, 
strong,  elastic,  and  of  good  color;  it  also  possesses  a 
high  felting  power.  Though  naturally  short,  it  is  now 
grown  to  good  length  and  the  fleece  is  dense.  The 
Merino  sheep  is  a  native  of  Spain,  and  Spain  was  for  a 
long  period  the  chief  country  of  its  production.  It 
was  also  in  past  centuries  extensively  bred  in  England 
and  English  wool  owes  much  to  the  Merino  for  the  im- 
provement it  has  effected  in  the  fleeces  of  other  breeds 
of  English  sheep.  It  was  also  introduced  into  Saxony 
and  was  highly  bred  there,  and  Saxony  soon  came  to 
surpass  Spanish  wool  in  fineness,  softness,  and  felting 
properties.  The  Merino  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
By  1810,  5,000  Merino  sheep  had  been  imported  and 
these  5,000  sheep  formed  the  basis  of  most  of  the  fine 
wool-producing  flocks  of  our  country  to-day. 

The  terms  half  blood,  three-eighths  blood,  and  quarter 
blood  refer  to  the  full-blooded  Merino  standard.  As 
the  scale  descends  the  wool  becomes  coarser,  the  wool 
of  a  quarter  blood  usually  being  a  comparatively  coarse 
fiber.  The  general  classifications  of  fine,  medium, 
coarse,  and  low,  refer  to  the  relative  fineness  of  Merino 
combing  wools.  These  distinctions  naturally  over- 
lap according  to  the  opinion  of  the  parties  in  trans- 
actions. Picklock  XXX  and  XX  represent  the  highest 
grades  of  clothing  wool,  the  grade  next  lower  being  X, 
and  then  Nos.  1  and  2.  These  again  are  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  locality  from  which  the  wool  is  grown, 
as  Ohio  XX,  Michigan  X,  New  York  No.  1,  etc. 


20  TEXTILES 

Difference    Between    Lamb's    and    Sheep's    Wool. 

One  of  the  first  points  to  be  understood  in  wool  sorting 
is  the  difference  between  the  wool  of  lambs  and  one- 
year-old  sheep,  and  that  of  sheep  two  or  more  years  old. 
Lamb's  wool  is  naturally  pointed  at  the  end,  because  it 
has  never  been  clipped.  It  is  termed  hog  or  hoggett 
wool,  and  is  more  valuable  when  longer,  of  about  four- 
teen months'  growth.  It  is  finer  in  quality  and  pos- 
sesses more  waviness,  which  is  a  help  in  the  process 
of  spinning. 

The  wool  of  sheep  two  or  more  years  old  is  known 
as  wether.  The  ends  of  the  fiber  from  such  sheep  are 
thick  and  blunted,  on  account  of  having  been  previ- 
ously cut.  It  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  tell  at  once  a 
hog  fleece  from  a  wether,  and  this  can  be  done  in  two 
ways:  by  examining  the  ends  of  the  fiber  to  see  if  they 
are  pointed;  or  by  pulling  a  staple  out  of  the  fleece.  If 
it  is  wether,  the  staple  will  come  out  clean,  without 
interfering  to  any  extent  with  those  around  it;  but  if 
hog,  some  of  the  fibers  will  adhere  to  the  one  that  is 
being  pulled.  Hog  wool  is  generally  more  full  of  dirt, 
moss,  straw,  and  other  vegetable  matter. 

Dead  Wool  is  wool  obtained  from  the  pelts  of  sheep 
that  have  died. 

Pulled  Wool.  Pulled  wool  is  wool  from  the  pelts  1  as 
they  come  from  the  slaughter-houses  of  large  packing 
plants.  These  pelts  are  thrown  into  vats  of  water  and 
left  to  soak  for  twenty-four  hours  to  loosen  the  dirt 
which  has  become  matted  into  the  wool.  From  these 

i  Skins. 


WOOL   SORTING  21 

vats  the  pelts  are  taken  to  scrubbing  machines  from  which 
the  wool  issues  perfectly  clean  and  white.     The  pelts 
are  next  freed  from  any  particles  of  flesh  or  fat  which 
may  have  adhered  to  them,  and  are  then  taken  to  the 
"  painting  "  room.     Here  they  are  laid  flesh  side  up  and 
carefully  painted  with  a  preparation  for  loosening  the 
roots  of  the  wool.     This  preparation  is  allowed  to  remain 
on  the  pelts  for  twenty-four  hours,  when  it  is  cleaned 
off  and  the  pelts  taken  to  the  "  pulling  "  room.     Each 
wool  puller  stands  before  a  small  wooden  framework  over 
which  the  pelt  is  thrown,  and  the  wool,  being  all  thor- 
oughly loosened  by  the  "  paint  "  preparation,  is  easily 
and  quickly  pulled  out  by  the  handful.     As  it  is  pulled 
it  is  thrown  into  barrels  conveniently  arranged  accord- 
ing to  grade  and  length. 

When  a  barrel  is  filled,  it  is  transferred  to  a  large 
room  across  which  are  several  rows  of  wire  netting, 
raised  about  three  feet  from  the  floor.  Each  sheet  of 
netting  is  about  six  feet  wide.  Here  the  wool  is  piled 
on  the  netting  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  and  hot  air  is 
forced  underneath  it  by  means  of  a  blower.  Meanwhile 
it  is  worked  over  by  men  with  rakes,  and  soon  dries. 
When  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  raked  up  and  taken  to  the 
storeroom,  where  it  is  dumped  into  bins.  Here  it  usually 
remains  open  for  inspection  and  sampling  till  it  is  sold, 
when  it  is  bagged.  The  bags  of  wool  ultimately  find 
their  way  to  the  woolen  mill  or  sampling  house.  Some- 
times the  fleece  will  retain  its  fleece  form,  but  usually 
it  breaks  up.  The  wool  contains  lime  and  has  to  be 
specially  treated  by  a  scouring  process  to  prevent  lime 


22  TEXTILES 

from    absorbing    the    cleansing    substances    used    for 
scouring  the  wool. 

Delaine  Wool  is  a  variety  of  fine,  long  combing  wool. 

Cotty  Wool,  or  cotts,  is  wool  from  sheep  that  have 
been  exposed  to  severe  weather  and  lack  of  nourish- 
ment, and  for  these  reasons  have  failed  to  throw  off 
the  yolk  necessary  to  feed  the  wool.  As  a  result  it 
becomes  matted  or  felted  together,  and  is  hard  and 
brittle  and  almost  worthless. 

Wool  Sorter.  The  sorter  begins  by  placing  the 
fleece  upon  his  board  or  table,  always  arranging  it  so 
that  he  faces  the  north,  as  this  gives  the  most  constant 
light  and  no  glare  of  the  sun.  The  fleece  thus  spread 
out  shows  a  definite  dividing  line  through  the  center. 
The  sorter  parts  the  two  halves  and  proceeds  to  ana- 
lyze their  different  qualities.  The  number  of  sorts  is 
determined  by  the  requirements  of  the  manufacturer 
who,  in  purchasing  his  wool,  buys  those  grades  that 
will  produce  the  greatest  bulk  of  the  qualities  for  present 
use,  and  that  leave  in  stock  the  smallest  number  of 
sorts  and  least  weight  for  which  he  has  no  immediate 
use.  The  sorter  then  removes  all  extraneous  matter 
adhering  to  the  fleece,  such  as  straw,  twigs,  and  seeds, 
and  cuts  off  the  hard  lumps  of  earth,  tar,  or  paint, 
which,  if  not  removed  at  this  time,  will  dissolve  in  the 
scouring  process  and  stain  the  wool.  With  these  pre- 
liminaries finished,  he  proceeds  to  cast  out  the  locks, 
according  to  quality,  into  baskets  or  skeps  provided 
for  that  purpose.  After  skirting  or  taking  off  the  out- 
side edges  of  the  fleece,  usually  known  as  brokes,  and 


WOOL  SORTING 


23 


the   legs  and  tail,  known  as  breech,  he  separates   the 
other  portions  from  the  better  qualities. 

Picklock,  prime,  choice,  super,  head,  downrights, 
seconds,  breech,  etc.,  are  some  of  the  terms  used.  Pick- 
lock comprises  the  choicest  qualities;  prime  is  similar 
to  picklock,  but  slightly  inferior;  choice  is  true  staple, 


SORTED   WOOL   IN    PILES    READY    TO    BE    TRANSPORTED    TO   THE 
DECREASING    PLANT 

but  not  as  fine  in  fiber;  super  is  similar  to  choice,  but 
as  a  rule  not  as  valuable;  head  includes  the  inferior 
sorts  from  this  part  of  the  sheep ;  downrights  come  from 
the  lower  parts  of  the  sides;  seconds  consist  of  the  best 
wool  clipped  from  the  throat  and  breast;  breech,  the 
short,  coarse  fibers  obtained  from  the  skirting  and 
edgings  of  the  fleece. 

In  the  worsted  trade  different  names  are  used.     The 


24  TEXTILES 

terms  generally  adopted  are:  blue,  from  the  neck; 
fine,  from  the  shoulders;  neat,  from  the  middle  of  the 
sides  and  back;  brown-drawings,  from  the  haunches; 
breech,  from  the  tail  and  hind  legs;  cowtail,  when  the 
breech  is  very  strong;  brokes,  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  front  legs  and  belly,  which  are  classed  as  super, 
middle,  and  common. 

Fine,  short  wools  are  sorted  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  counts  of  yarn  they  are  expected  to  spin,  as  48's, 
60's,  70's,  and  so  on.  Thus  we  see  there  are  different 
methods  of  indicating  qualities  in  different  districts, 
and  also  of  indicating  differences  of  qualities  between 
the  woolen  and  worsted  branches  of  the  trade. 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  quality  of  the  wool  varies 
in  the  same  way  as  the  quality  of  the  flesh.  The 
shoulder  is  finest  in  grain  and  most  delicate,  so  the 
wool  is  finer  in  fiber.  There  is  more  wear  and  tear  for 
the  sheep  at  its  haunches  than  at  its  shoulders,  hence 
the  wool  is  longer  and  stronger;  about  the  neck  the 
wool  is  short,  to  prevent  the  sheep  from  being  weighted 
down  while  eating,  etc.;  the  wool  on  the  back  becomes 
rough  and  thin,  being  most  exposed  to  the  rain.  From 
the  foregoing  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  there  is  neces- 
sity for  careful  sorting,  in  order  to  insure  obtaining  an 
even  running  yarn,  and  subsequently  a  uniform  quality 
of  fabrics. 

Wool  Washing.  Fleece  wool  as  it  comes  into  the 
market  is  either  in  the  "  grease,"  that  is,  unwashed  and 
with  all  the  dirt  which  gathers  on  the  surface  of  the 
greasy  wool;  or  it  is  received  as  washed  wool,  the 


WOOL   SORTING 


25 


washing  being  done  as  a  preliminary  step  to  the  sheep 
shearing.  Wool,  unlike  cotton,  cannot  be  worked  into 
yarn  without  being  thoroughly  cleansed  of  its  impurities. 
These  impurities  consist  of  greasy  and  sweaty  secre- 
tions, of  the  nature  of  a  lubricant  to  the  fiber.  Com- 
bined with  dirt,  sand,  etc.,  which  adhere  to  the  wool, 


WASHING    ROOM 

these  secretions  form  an  encrusting  compound,  known 
as  yolk,  which  acts  as  a  natural  preservative  to  the 
wool,  keeping  it  soft  and  supple.  This  compound,  with 
other  extraneous  matter,  must  be  removed  before  the 
wool  is  in  a  workable  condition.  The  amount  of  yolk 
varies,  the  greatest  amount  being  found  in  fine,  short 
wools  from  the  warm  climates.  In  long-staple  wool 
the  amount  of  yolk  is  comparatively  small. 


26  TEXTILES 

Various  methods  of  removing  these  impurities  have 
been  tried;  one  is  the  use  of  absorbent  substances,  such 
as  fossil  meal,  alumina,  etc.,  to  withdraw  the  greasy 
matter,  so  that  the  remaining  impurities  can  be  easily 
removed  by  washing.  In  other  methods,  naphtha  or 
similar  solvent  liquids  are  used  to  dissolve  the  wool 
fats.  This  is  followed  by  washing  in  tepid  water  to 
dissolve  the  potash  salts,  leaving  the  dirt  to  fall  away 
when  the  other  substances  are  no  longer  present.  To 
work  this  method  with  safety  requires  a  costly  and 
intricate  plant  with  skilled  supervision.  The  method 
which  is  practically  in  universal  use  is  washing  the 
wool  in  alkaline  solutions,  properties  of  which  com- 
bine with  and  reduce  the  impurities  to  a  lathery  emul- 
sion which  is  easily  washed  off  from  the  wool. 

Great  stress  is  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  care  in  the 
washing  process,  as  the  luster  may  be  destroyed  and  a 
brownish-yellow  tint  given  to  the  wool,  the  spinning 
properties  very  seriously  injured,  the  softness  destroyed, 
or  the  fiber  dissolved.  Some  wools  are  easy  to  wash, 
requiring  little  soap  and  a  reasonable  temperature; 
other  wools  are  cleansed  with  great  difficulty.  A  note, 
therefore,  should  be  made  of  any  particular  brand  or 
class  of  wool  requiring  special  attention,  to  serve  as  a 
guide  in  the  treatment  of  future  lots.  The  danger  lies 
in  using  unsuitable  agents,  —  hard  water,  excessive 
temperatures,  strong  reagents,  etc. 

Caustic  alkalies  have  a  most  destructive  effect  on 
wool  as  they  eat  into  it  and  destroy  its  vitality.  Car- 
bonate alkalies  are  less  severe.  Whatever  cleansing 


WOOL   SORTING 


27 


substances  are  used,  it  is  essential  that  they  should  be 
free  from  anything  that  is  likely  to  injure  the  wool  - 
that  they  remove  the  impurities  and  still  preserve  all 
the  qualities  in  the  wool.  If  the  washing  is  properly 
performed  the  alkaline  portion  of  the  yolk  is  removed, 
leaving  only  the  colorless  animal  oil  in  the  fiber.  If 


DECREASING    PLANT  — REMOVING    GREASE    FROM    WOOL 

the  work  is  not  thoroughly  done  the  wool  passes  as 
"  unmerchantable  washed."  "  Tub  washed  "  is  the 
term  applied  to  fleeces  which  are  broken  up  and  washed 
more  or  less  by  hand.  Scoured  wool  is  tub  washed  with 
warm  water  and  soap,  and  then  thoroughly  rinsed  in 
cold  water  until  nothing  remains  but  the  clean  fiber. 

An  improved  method  of  washing  wool  by  hand  is  to 
have  a  series  of  tanks  with  pressing  rollers  attached  to 


28  TEXTILES 

each  tank;  the  wool  is  agitated  by  means  of  forks,  and 
then  passed  to  the  pressing  rollers  and  into  each  tank 
in  succession.  The  tanks  are  usually  five  in  number, 
and  so  arranged  that  the  liquor  can  be  run  from  the 
upper  to  the  lower  tank.  Upon  leaving  the  pressing 
rollers  the  excess  of  water  is  driven  off  in  a  hydro 
extractor  l  and  the  wool  is  beaten  into  a  light,  fluffy 
condition  by  means  of  a  wooden  fan  or  beater. 

Wool  Drying.  The  process  of  drying  wool  is  not 
intended  to  be  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  the  wool 
will  be  in  an  absolutely  dry  state,  for  in  such  a  con- 
dition it  would  be  lusterless,  brittle,  and  discolored.  It 
is  the  nature  of  wool  to  retain  a  certain  amount  of 
moisture  since  it  is  hygroscopic,  and  to  remove  it  en- 
tirely would  result  in  partial  disintegration  of  the  fibers. 
Buyers  and  sellers  have  a  recognized  standard  of  mois- 
ture, 16  per  cent.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  left  too 
wet,  the  fibers  will  not  stand  the  pulling  strain  in  the 
succeeding  operations,  and  if  not  broken,  they  are  so 
unduly  stretched  that  they  have  lost  their  elasticity. 

The  theory  which  underlies  the  drying  process  is 
that  dry  air  is  capable  of  absorbing  moisture,  hence  by 
circulating  currents  of  dry  air  in  and  around  wet  wool, 
the  absorbing  power  of  the  air  draws  off  the  moisture. 
For  continuous  drying  free  circulation  is  a  necessity, 
as  otherwise  the  air  would  soon  become  saturated  and 
incapable  of  taking  up  more  moisture.  Warming  the 
air  increases  its  capacity  to  absorb  moisture;  thus  a 

1  A  wire  cage  enclosed  in  a  metallic  shell  which  revolves  at  a  high 
speed  causing  sixty  or  seventy  per  cent  of  the  moisture  to  be  removed. 


WOOL   SORTING  29 

higher  temperature  is  capable  of  drying  the  wool  much 
quicker  than  the  same  volume  of  air  would  at  a  low 
temperature.  A  free  circulation  of  air  at  75  to  100 
degrees  F.,  evenly  distributed,  and  with  ample  provision 
for  the  escape  of  the  saturated  air,  is  essential  for  good 
work. 

Oiling.  After  being  scoured  wool  generally  has  to 
be  oiled  before  it  is  ready  for  the  processes  of  spinning, 
blending,  etc.  As  delivered  from  the  drying  apparatus, 
the  wool  is  bright  and  clean,  but  somewhat  harsh  and 
wiry  to  the  touch,  owing  to  the  removal  of  the  yolk 
which  is  its  natural  lubricant.  To  render  it  soft  and 
elastic,  and  to  improve  its  spinning  qualities,  the  fiber 
is  sprinkled  with  lard  oil  or  olive  oil.  As  the  oil  is  a 
costly  item,  it  is  of  consequence  that  it  be  equally  dis- 
tributed and  used  economically.  To  attain  this  end 
various  forms  of  oiling  apparatus  have  been  invented, 
which  sprinkle  the  oil  in  a  fine  spray  over  the  wool, 
which  is  carried  under  the  sprinkler  by  an  endless  cloth. 

Burring  and  Carbonizing.  After  wool  has  been 
washed  and  scoured  it  frequently  happens  that  it  can- 
not be  advanced  to  the  succeeding  operations  of  manu- 
facture because  it  is  mixed  with  burs,  seeds,  leaves, 
slivers,  etc.,  which  are  picked  up  by  the  sheep  in  the 
pasture.  These  vegetable  impurities  injure  the  spin- 
ning qualities  of  the  stock,  for  if  a  bur  or  other  foreign 
substance  becomes  fastened  in  the  strand  of  yarn  while 
it  is  being  spun,  it  either  causes  the  thread  to  break  or 
renders  it  bunchy  and  uneven.  For  removing  burs, 
etc.,  from  the  wool  two  methods  are  pursued:  the 


30  TEXTILES 

one  purely  mechanical,  the  other  chemical,  and  known 
respectively  as  burring  and  carbonizing. 

Bur  Picker.  For  the  mechanical  removing  of  burs  a 
machine  called  the  bur  picker  is  employed.  In  this 
machine  the  wool  is  first  spread  out  into  a  thin  lap  or 
sheet;  then  light  wooden  blades,  rotating  rapidly,  beat 
upon  every  part  of  the  sheet  and  break  the  burs  into 
pieces.  The  pieces  fall  down  into  the  dust  box  or  upon 
a  grating  beneath  the  machine,  and  are  ejected  together 
with  a  good  deal  of  the  wool  adhering  to  them.  Often 
the  machine  fails  to  beat  out  fine  pieces  and  these  are 
scattered  through  the  stock. 

Process  of  Carbonizing.  For  the  complete  removal 
of  all  foreign  vegetable  substances  from  wool  the  most 
effective  process  is  carbonizing,  in  which  the  burs,  etc., 
are  burned  out  by  means  of  acid  and  a  high  degree  of 
heat.  The  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows:  The 
wool  to  be  treated  is  immersed  in  a  solution  of  sul- 
phuric or  hydrochloric  acid  for  about  twelve  hours,  the 
acid  bath  being  placed  in  cement  cisterns  or  in  large 
lead-lined  tubs  and  not  made  strong  enough  to  injure  the 
fiber  of  the  wool.  During  the  immersion  the  stock  is 
frequently  stirred.  Next,  the  wool  is  dried  and  then 
placed  in  an  enclosed  chamber  and  subjected  to  a  high 
temperature  (75  degrees  C.).  The  result  of  this  process 
is  that  all  the  vegetable  matter  contained  in  the  wool 
is  "  carbonized  "  or  burned  to  a  crisp,  and  on  being 
slightly  beaten  or  shaken  readily  turns  to  dust.  This 
dust  is  removed  from  the  wool  by  various  simple 
processes.  The  carbonizing  process  was  first  introduced 


WOOL   SORTING  31 

in  1875,  though  it  made  but  slight  headway  against  the 
old  burring  method  until  after  1880. 

Blending.  Pure  wool  of  but  one  quality  is  not  often 
used  in  the  production  of  woven  fabrics,  so,  before  the 
raw  material  is  ready  for  spinning  into  yarn,  or  for 
other  processes  by  which  it  is  worked  into  useful  forms, 
it  is  blended.  Wools  are  blended  for  many  reasons 
(among  'which  cheapness  figures  prominently),  the 
added  materials  consisting  usually  of  shoddy,  mungo, 
or  extract  fibers.  Ordinarily,  however,  blending  has 
for  its  object  the  securing  of  a  desired  quality  or  weight 
of  cloth.  The  question  of  color,  as  well  as  quality,  also 
determines  blending  operations,  natural  colored  wools 
being  frequently  intermixed  to  obtain  particular  shades 
for  dress  goods,  tweeds,  knitting  yarns,  etc.  Stock 
dyed  wools  are  also  blended  for  the  production  of  mixed 
colors,  as  browns,  grays,  Oxfords,  etc.  There  is  prac- 
tically no  limit  to  the  variety  of  shades  and  tints  obtain- 
able by  mixing  two  or  more  colors  of  wool  together. 
The  various  quantities  of  wool  to  be  blended  are  spread 
out  in  due  proportion  in  the  form  of  thin  layers,  one  on 
top  of  the  other,  and  then  passed  through  a  machine 
called  the  teaser.  The  teaser  consists  of  a  combination 
of  large  and  small  rollers,  thickly  studded  with  small 
pins,  which  open  the  wool,  pull  it  apart,  and  thoroughly 
intermix  it.  A  blast  of  air  constantly  plays  upon  the 
wool  in  the  teaser  and  aids  the  spikes  and  pins  in  open- 
ing out  the  fibers.  The  material  is  subjected  to  this 
operation  several  times  and  is  finally  delivered  in  a 
soft,  fleecy  condition,  ready  to  be  spun  into  yarn. 


CHAPTER  III 
WOOL    SUBSTITUTES    AND    WASTE    PRODUCTS 

Remanufactured  wool  substitutes  are  extensively  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  woolen  and  worsted  goods. 
There  is  no  need  for  the  prejudice  that  is  sometimes 
met  regarding  these  reclaimed  materials,  for  by  their 
use  millions  of  people  are  warmly  and  cheaply  clothed. 
If  the  immense  quantity  of  these  materials  were  wasted, 
countless  persons  would  be  unable  to  afford  proper  cloth- 
ing, as  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  what  the  price  of  wool 
would  be ;  and  it  is  also  doubtful  if  a  sufficient  quantity 
could  be  produced  to  supply  the  need.  In  almost  all 
instances  the  use  of  wool  substitutes  is  for  the  special 
purpose  of  producing  cloths  at  a  much  lower  price. 

The  cloths  made  from  waste  products,  such  as  noils, 
are  not  much  inferior  in  quality  to  those  produced  from 
the  wool  from  which  the  noils  are  obtained;  but  the 
great  majority  of  cloths  made  from  other  waste  products 
are  much  inferior.  The  following  are  the  most  impor- 
tant substitutes:  noils,  shoddy,  mungo,  extract-wool, 
and  flocks. 

Noils  are  the  rejected  fibers  from  the  process  of  comb- 
ing the  different  wools  and  hairs;  thus,  wool  noils  are 
from  the  sheep,  mohair  noils  from  the  Angora  goat,  and 
alpaca  noils  from  the  Peruvian  sheep. 

32 


WOOL   SUBSTITUTES   AND   WASTE   PRODUCTS       33 

Noils  are  divided  into  classes,  namely,  long-wool 
noils,  short  or  fine-wool  noils,  mohair  noils,  and  alpaca 
noils.  They  are  all  obtained  in  the  process  of  combing, 
that  is,  the  process  which  separates  the  long  from  the 
short  fibers;  the  former  are  known  as  the  "  top,"  and 
are  used  in  worsted  and  in  the  production  of  mohair 
and  alpaca  yarns;  while  the  latter  are  used  to  advan- 
tage in  the  production  of  many  different  kinds  of  woolen 
fabrics.  With  the  exception  of  length,  noils  are  prac- 
tically of  the  same  quality  as  the  tops  from  which  they 
are  taken. 

Long-wool  noils  are  from  the  combings  of  such  wools 
as  Leicester  and  similar  wools.  These  noils,  like  the 
wool  from  which  they  are  obtained,  are  much  coarser 
in  quality  and  fiber  than  the  short-wool  noils.  Occa- 
sionally, when  strength  is  required  in  the  fabric,  these 
noils  are  used,  and  they  are  also  mixed  with  short-wool 
noils.  Many  of  the  cheviot  fabrics  are  made  exclu- 
sively of  these  noils.  They  are  also  mixed  with  shoddy 
and  cotton  in  the  production  of  dark-colored  fabrics, 
and  in  medium  and  low-priced  goods  requiring  a 
fibrous  appearance  they  are  extremely  useful. 

Short  or  fine-wool  noils  are  the  most  valuable,  and 
are  obtained  from  combing  Australian  and  other  fine 
wools.  The  number  and  variety  of  uses  to  which  they 
are  put  are  innumerable.  They  are  used  to  advantage 
in  the  plain  and  fancy  woolen  trade,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  shawls  and  plain  woolens  of  a  soft  nature,  and 
are  also  suitable  for  mixing  with  cotton  in  the  produc- 
tion of  twist  threads. 


34  TEXTILES 

Mohair  and  alpaca  noils  are  obtained  by  the  combing 
of  these  materials.  They  are  lacking  in  felting  proper- 
ties, but  are  lustrous  and  possess  strength,  and  are 
most  valuable  in  the  manufacture  of  fabrics  where 
strength  and  luster  are  required.  These  noils  are  used 
in  the  production  of  yarns  for  Kidderminster  carpets, 
as  yarns  for  these  carpets  must  possess  strength,  bright- 
ness, and  thickness  of  fiber.  They  are  also  used  in  com- 
bination with  shoddy  and  cotton  to  produce  weft  or 
filling  yarns  for  a  lower  quality  of  goods. 

Shoddy  and  Mungo  are  in  reality  wool  products,  or 
wool  fiber  which  has  previously  passed  through  the 
processes  of  manufacture  whereby  its  physical  structure 
has  been  considerably  mutilated.  These  were  first 
produced  about  sixty  years  ago.  Shoddy  is  higher  in 
value  than  mungo.  The  value  and  quality  of  the  waste 
or  rags  from  which  it  is  made  determine  the  quality  or 
value  of  the  material.  Shoddy  is  derived  from  waste 
or  rags  of  pure  unmilled  woolens,  such  as  flannels,  wraps, 
stockings,  and  all  kinds  of  soft  goods. 

Mungo  is  made  from  rags  of  hard  or  milled  character 
and  is  much  shorter  in  fiber  than  shoddy.  Its  length, 
varying  from  one-quarter  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch, 
can  be  regulated  by  the  treatment  the  rags  receive,  and 
by  the  proper  setting  of  the  rollers  in  the  grinding 
machine.  Both  shoddy  and  mungo  may  be  divided 
into  classes.  Mungo  is  divided  into  two  classes,  namely, 
new  and  old  mungo.  New  rnungo  is  made  from  rags 
chiefly  composed  of  tailor's  clippings,  unused  pattern- 
room  clippings,  etc.  Old  mungo  is  made  from  cast-off 


WOOL    SUBSTITUTES   AND   WASTE   PRODUCTS      35 

garments,  etc.  By  a  careful  selection  of  the  rags  previ- 
ous to  grinding,  it  is  possible  to  make  a  large  number 
of  qualities,  and  a  great  variety  of  colors  and  shades 
without  dyeing.  Owing  to  their  cheapness  shoddy  and 
mungo  are  used  in  cloths  of  low  and  medium  qualities. 
Shoddies  are  utilized  in  fabrics  of  the  cheviot  class  and  in 
the  production  of  backing  yarns.  Mungoes  of  the  best 
quality  are  used  in  the  low  fancy  tweed  trade,  in  both 
warp  and  weft,  but  chiefly  in  union  and  backed  fabrics. 
Method  of  Producing  Shoddy  and  Mungo.  Before 
the  fibrous  mungo  is  obtained,  the  rags  have  to  pass 
through  the  following  necessary  preliminary  operations: 

A.  Dusting.     This  is  carried  on  in  a  shaking  machine, 
which  consists  of  a  cylinder  possessing  long  and  strong 
spikes,  which  are  enclosed,  having  underneath  a  grating 
to  allow  the  dust  to  pass  through.     The  dust  is  then 
driven   by  a  fan   into   a  receptacle  provided   for    that 
purpose. 

B.  Sorting.     All  rags,  both  old  and  new,  must  be 
sorted,  and  considerable  care  must  be  exercised  in  this 
operation,  as  on  this  work  alone  depends  the  obtaining 
of  different  qualities  and  shades,  as  well  as  the  securing 
of  the  production  of  a  regular  and  uniform  product. 

C.  Seaming.     This  is  only  necessary  with  the  rags 
procured  from  garments.     It  is  simply  removing  the 
cotton  threads  from  the  seams,   and  any  metallic  or 
hard  substances  from  the  rags. 

D.  Oiling.     The  rags  are  oiled  to  soften  them  and 
make   them   more   pliable,  and   thus   to   facilitate   the 
grinding. 


36  TEXTILES 

E.  Grinding.  This  is  the  principal  operation,  and  the 
rags  are  made  fibrous  in  this  process.  The  machine  by 
which  this  is  effected  is  made  up  of  the  following  parts : 
feed  apron,  fluted  rollers,  swift,  and  a  funnel  for  con- 
veying the  material  out  of  the  machine.  The  principal 
features  of  the  machine  are  the  swift  and  its  speed. 
The  swift  is  enclosed  in  a  framework,  and  is  about 
forty-two  inches  in  diameter  and  eighteen  inches  wide, 
thus  possessing  a  surface  area  of  2,376  square  inches, 
containing  from  12,000  to  14,000  fine  strong  iron  spikes. 
The  speed  of  the  swift  may  be  from  600  to  800  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  The  rags  are  fed  by  placing  them  on 
the  traveling  feed  apron,  and  are  thus  conveyed  to  the 
fluted  rollers.  As  they  emerge  from  the  rollers  they 
are  presented  to  the  swift,  and  by  strong  iron  teeth, 
moving  with  exceedingly  high  surface  velocity,  they 
are  torn  thread  from  thread  and  fiber  from  fiber.  The 
fluted  rollers  run  very  slowly,  and  the  rags  are  held 
while  the  swift  carries  out  this  operation.  By  means  of 
the  strong  current  of  air  created  by  the  high  speed  of  the 
swift,  the  mungo  is  expelled  from  the  machine  through 
the  funnel  into  a  specially  arranged  receptacle.  If  by 
any  chance. the  machine  should  be  overcharged,  that  is, 
if  too  many  rags  are  passing  through  the  rollers,  the  top 
fluted  roller  is  raised  up,  and  the  rags  are  simply  car- 
ried, or  thrown  by  the  swift,  over  into  a  box  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  machine  without  being  subjected 
to  the  tearing  process.  The  top  roller  is  weighted  by 
levers  with  weights  attached  to  keep  it  in  position,  thus 
bringing  downward  pressure  to  bear  upon  it,  as  it  is 


WOOL   SUBSTITUTES   AND   WASTE    PRODUCTS       37 

driven  simply  by  friction.  By  the  adjustment  of  the 
feed  rollers  in  relation  to  the  swift,  the  length  of  the 
fiber  may  be  varied  to  a  small  degree. 

Extract  Wool.  This  is  obtained  from  union  cloths, 
that  is,  from  cloths  having  a  wool  weft  and -warp  of 
cotton,  etc.,  also  from  cloths  having  the  same  material 
for  warp,  but  possessing  a  woolen  or  mungo  warp  or 
filling,  etc.  It  is  the  wool  fiber  that  is  required.  There- 
fore the  vegetable  matter  (cotton)  must  be  extracted 
from  it  by  the  process  of  carbonizing.  To  effect  this, 
the  tissue  or  rags  are  steeped  in  a  solution  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  water  and  then  subjected  to  heat  in  an 
enclosed  room.  The  water  is  evaporated,  leaving  the 
acid  in  a  concentrated  form,  which  acts  upon  the  cotton, 
converting  it  into  powder.  The  powder  readily 
becomes  separated,  and  thus  the  cotton  is  eliminated. 
The  material  that  is  left  is  well  washed  to  remove  all 
acid,  dried,  and  then  passed  through  a  miniature  carder, 
to  impart  to  it  the  appearance  of.  a  woolly  and  a 
softer  fabric. 

Flocks.  These  are  of  three  kinds,  and  are  waste 
products  of  the  milling,  cropping,  and  raising  opera- 
tions. The  most  valuable  are  those  derived  from  the 
fulling  mill,  being  clean  and  of  a  bright  color.  They 
are  chiefly  used  by  sail  spinners,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  low  grade  cloths  of  a  cheviot  class.  White  flocks 
are  suitable  for  blending  with  wool,  and  as  a  rule  com- 
mand a  fair  price.  Raising  flocks  are  those  obtained 
from  the  dressing  or  raising  gigs,  and  are  applied  to 
purposes  similar  to  those  for  which  fulling  flocks  are 


38 


TEXTILES 


used.  Cutting  or  cropping  flocks  are  the  short  fibers 
which  are  removed  from  the  cloths  in  this  operation. 
They  are  practically  of  no  value  to  the  textile  manu- 
facturer, being  unfit  for  yarn  production,  but  are  used 
chiefly  by  wall-paper  manufacturers  in  producing  "  flock- 
papers,"  which  are  papers  with  raised  figures  resembling 
cloth,  made  of  poor  wool,  and  attached  with  a  gluey 
varnish. 


CARD    ROOM 

1.  Automatic  Feed.     5.  2d  Top  Divider.        9.  Main  Cylinders. 

2.  Bur  Guards.  6.  Workers. 

3.  Bur  Tray.  7.  Strippers. 


10.  Main  Card  Drive  on  2d 
Main  Cylinder  Shaft. 


4.  1st  Top  Divider.     8.  Doffer  Cylinder.     11.  1st  Lickerin. 


12.  2d  Lickerin. 

13.  3d  Lickerin. 

14.  4th  Lickerin. 

15.  Fancy  Hood. 


CHAPTER  IV 
WORSTED   YARNS 

Carding.  After  the  wool  is  washed  it  undergoes  a 
number  of  operations  before  it  is  finished  into  worsted 
or  woolen  yarn.1  The  first  step  in  the  manufacturing 
of  worsted  yarn  is  to  pass  the  washed  wool  through  a 
worsted  card  which  consists  of  a  number  of  cylinders 
covered  with  fine  wire  teeth  mounted  on  a  frame.  The 
effect  of  these  cylinders  on  the  wool  is  to  disengage  the 
wool  fibers,  make  them  straight,  and  form  a  "  sliver  " 
or  strand.  It  is  now  ready  for  the  combing  machine. 

Combing.  The  process  of  combing  consists  of  sub- 
jecting the  card  sliver  to  the  operations  of  the  auto- 
matic wool  comber,  which  straightens  the  fibers  and 
removes  all  short  and  tufted  pieces  of  wool.  Combing 
is  a  guarantee  that  every  fiber  of  the  wool  lies  per- 
fectly straight,  and  that  all  fibers  follow  one  after  the 
other  in  regular  order. 

Comb.  A  comb  is  a  complicated  machine.  The 
principal  feature  is  a  large  metal  ring  with  rows  of  fine 
steel  pins  (pin  circles),  which  is  made  to  revolve  hori- 
zontally within  the  machine.  By  various  devices  the 

1  The  distinct  difference  between  worsted  and  woolen  yarns  is  that 
worsted  yarn  is  made  of  fibers  that  are  parallel,  while  the  fibers  of 
woolen  yarn  run  in  all  directions.  The  worsted  yam  is  stronger. 

39 


40  TEXTILES 

wool  is  fed  into  the  teeth  of  the  ring  in  the  form  of 
tufts.  The  fibers  of  the  tufts  by  an  intricate  process 
are  separated  into  long  and  short  lengths,  and  a  set  of 
rollers  draws  each  out  separately  and  winds  it  into 
a  continuous  strand  called  "  tops."  On  leaving  the 
comber,  the  wool  is  free  from  short  fibers,  specks,  and 
foreign  substances,  and  presents  a  fine,  flowing,  and  lus- 
trous appearance.  The  short  combed-out  wool  is  called 
noils,  and  is  used  in  making  carpet  yarns,  ground  up 
into  shoddy  stock,  or  utilized  in  spinning  fancy  yarns. 

Worsted  Tops.  American  textile  manufacturers  are 
finding  it  advantageous  to  have  their  combing  done  by 
those  who  make  the  work  a  specialty  rather  than  to  do 
it  themselves.  In  the  manufacture  of  tops  all  varieties  of 
combing  wools  are  used :  Australian,  Merino,  and  Cross- 
bred wools,  South  American  Merino  and  Crossbred 
wools,  Cape  Merino  wools,  Merino  and  Crossbred  wools 
grown  in  the  United  States,  the  lustrous  wools  of  pure 
English  blood,  Mohair  from  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  Alpaca 
from  the  Andes.  Tops  are  sold  to  worsted  spinneries.1 
Many  mills  or  worsted  spinneries  send  their  wools, 
either  sorted  or  unsorted  as  they  may  desire,  to  a  comb- 
ing mill,  where  the  wool  is  put  into  top  at  a  lower  price 
than  that  at  which  most  spinneries  can  do  their  own 
combing.  By  means  of  the  naphtha  process  a  larger 
amount  of  top  from  a  given,  amount  of  wool  can  be 
secured  than  by  any  other  process,  and  in  addition,  a 
top  in  better  condition  for  drawing  and  spinning. 

In  a  strand  of  combed  wool,  called  top,  no  single 
1  Mills  that  manufacture  worsted  yarn. 


COMB    ROOM 


1.  Driving  pulley  on  horizontal  shaft  (2). 

3.  Boxes  containing  bevel  gears. 

4.  Pillars. 

5.  Driving  pulley  for  dabbing  motion. 

6.  Boxes  containing  dabbing-brush  mech- 

anism. 

7.  Dabbing  brushes. 

8.  Star  or  stroker  wheels. 

9.  Large  circle  containing  rows  of  pins. 


10.  Dra wing-off  apron  and  rollers  for  large 

circle. 

11.  Brass  boxes  or  conductors. 

12.  Guides  for  comb  ball  ends. 

13.  Comb  balls  (4  ends  each). 

14.  Fluted  wooden  rollers  on  which  comb 

balls  rest. 

15.  Comb  leg  (4  in  number). 

16.  Foundation  plate . 


42  TEXTILES 

fiber  lies  across  the  strand;  all  lie  in  the  direction 
of  the  length.  This  order  is  preserved  until  the 
fibers  have  been  converted  into  yarn,  which  is  accom- 
plished by  passing  through  "  gill  boxes."  These  gill 
boxes  are  machines  with  bars  of  iron  having  upon  their 
surface  two  rows  of  minute  steel  pins,  by  this  means 
kept  perfectly  straight.  The  bars  on  which  they  are 
placed  are  worked  on  screws  between  two  sets  of  rollers. 
The  wool  enters  between  the  first  set  of  rollers,  and, 
as  it  passes  through,  is  caught  by  one  of  these  gills 
that  is  raised  up  for  the  purpose,  being  succeeded  by 
others  as  the  rollers  revolve.  These  gills  are  moved 
forward  on  screws  in  the  direction  of  the  other  set  of 
rollers,  and  the  pins  in  the  gills  always  keep  the  fiber 
perfectly  straight.  The  second  set  of  rollers  is  termed 
the  draught  rollers,  since  by  them  the  wool,  after  pass- 
ing through  the  front  rollers,  is  drawn  out  and  reduced 
in  thickness.  This  is  accomplished  because  the  second 
rollers  revolve  at  a  higher  rate  of  speed  than  the  first 
rollers,  the  speed  being  regulated  according  to  the 
length  of  the  wool,  and  the  thickness  of  the  yarn  to  be 
produced.  These  gills  are  used  in  the  production  of 
worsted  yarn  until  the  size  of  the  rope  of  wool  has  been 
so  reduced  and  twisted  that  there  is  no  chance  of  any 
fiber  getting  crossed  or  out  of  the  order  of  straightness. 
A  worsted  yarn  is,  consequently,  a  straight  yarn,  or  a 
yarn  produced  from  perfectly  straight  fibers. 

The  combing  of  wool  may  be  dispensed  with  in  some 
cases,  although  such  a  yarn  is  not  in  common  use. 
When  combing  is  dispensed  with,  the  gills,  in  connection 


MM" 


44  TEXTILES 

with  the  draught  of  the  rollers,  make  the  fibers  straight, 
and  produce  a  worsted  yarn,  although  such  a  yarn  has 
a  tendency  to  be  uneven  and  knotty. 

Before  the  wool  can  be  spun  it  must  be  made  into 
roving  of  a  suitable  thickness.  This  is  done  by 
passing  it,  after  being  combed,  through  a  series  of 
operations  termed  drawing,  whose  functions  are  to 
produce  a  gradual  reduction  in  thickness  at  each 
stage.  Although  the  number  of  machines  varies 
according  to  the  kind  of  wool  to  be  treated,  still 
the  same  principle  applies  to  all. 

Spinning.  The  process  of  spinning  is  the  last  in  the 
formation  of  yarn  or  thread,  the  subsequent  operations 
having  for  their  object  the  strengthening  of  the  yarn 
by  combining  two  or  more  strands  and  afterward 
arranging  them  for  weaving  or  for  the  purpose  for 
which  the  yarn  is  required.  It  is  also  the  last  time  that 
the  fibers  are  mechanically  drawn  over  each  other  or 
drafted,  and  this  is  invariably  done  from  a  single  roving. 
The  humidity  and  temperature  of  the  spinning  room 
must  be  adjusted  to  conditions.  Each  spinner  is 
provided  with  a  wet  and  dry  thermometer  so  that  the 
best  temperature  can  be  ascertained.  The  most  suit- 
able heat  and  humidity  can  only  be  obtained  by  com- 
parison and  observation.  A  dry  and  warm  atmosphere 
causes  the  wool  to  become  charged  with  electricity  and 
then  the  fibers  repel  each  other. 

Worsted  yarn  is  spun  by  two  different  methods 
known  respectively  as  the  Bradford  or  English  system 
and  the  French  system.  The  difference  in  these  systems 


46  TEXTILES 

of  spinning  worsteds  lies  principally  in  the  draw- 
ing and  spinning  processes,  a  radically  different  class 
of  machinery  being  used  for  each.  The  combing  proc- 
ess is  practically  the  same  in  both  cases,  but  the  wool 
is  combed  dry  for  the  French  system,  and  by  the  Eng- 
lish method  the  stock  is  thoroughly  oiled  before  being 
combed.  The  result  of  the  English  method  is  the  pro- 
duction of  a  smooth  level  yarn  in  which  the  fibers  lie 
nearly  parallel  to  each  other.  The  yarn  made  accord- 
ing to  the  French  system  is  somewhat  fuzzier  and  more 
woolly.  On  account  of  the  absence  of  oil,  the  shrink- 
age of  French  spun  worsted  is  considerably  less  than 
that  made  by  the  Bradford  system. 

Characteristics  of  Worsted  Yarn.  The  unique 
structure  of  worsted  yarn  makes  it  invaluable  in 
the  production  of  textile  fabrics  in  which  luster  and 
uniformity  of  surface  are  the  chief  characteristics. 
The  methods  by  which  worsted  is  formed  render  it 
capable  of  sustaining  more  tension  in  proportion  to 
its  size  than  the  pure  woolen  yarn.  This  feature, 
combined  with  its  lustrous  quality,  gives  it  a  pre- 
eminent position  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  coat- 
ings, dress  goods,  etc.  The  method  of  arranging  the 
fibers  in  the  formation  of  a  woolen  yarn  is  such  as  to 
produce  a  strand  with  a  somewhat  indefinite  and 
fibrous  surface,  which  destroys  to  a  large  degree  the 
clearness  of  the  pattern  effect  in  the  woven  piece.  In 
the  construction  of  worsted  yarn  the  fibers  are  arranged 
in  a  parallel  relationship  to  each  other,  resulting  in  the 
production  of  a  smooth,  hard  yarn  having  a  well-defined 


48 


TEXTILES 


surface;  hence  weave-ornamentation  of  a  decided  or 
marked  type  is  possible  by  its  use.  There  is,  in  a  word, 
more  scope  for  pattern  effects,  since  the  level  and  regu- 
lar structure  of  the  yarn  imparts  a  distinction  to  every 


FRENCH    SPINNING 

1.  Balling  heads.  4.    Gearing  for  driving  rub  motion. 

2.  Bobbins  upon  which  stock  is  wound.        5.    Shipper  rod  and  handles. 

3.  Rub  or  condenser  aprons.  6.    Bobbins  held  in  place  in  creel  by  skewers. 

7.    Weights  with  system  of  levers  for  applying  pressure  to  rollers. 

part  of  a  woven  design.  From  this  peculiarity  arises 
the  great  variety  of  effects  seen  in  the  worsted  dress 
fabrics,  coatings,  trouserings,  etc.,  both  in  colored 
patterns  and  in  fabrics  of  one  shade  throughout. 

Worsted  yarn  can  be  made  of  pure  wool;  and  as  a 
rule,  the  wool  used  in  the  English  system  is  of  fairly 
good  length  and  uniform  staple,  for  if  otherwise  it  is 
only  with  difficulty  that  the  yarn  can  be  spun  straight. 


WORSTED  YARNS  49 

Shorter  wool  can  be  combed  and  spun  under  the  French 
system,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  the  French  system 
of  spinning  is  being  introduced.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  spinning  of  woolen  yarns  great  length  of  staple  is 
not  essential,  for  the  machinery  employed  will  work 
the  small  fibers. 

Uses  of  Worsted  Yarn.     Worsted  yarn  may  be  used 
in  any  of  the  following  fabrics: 

1.  Combed   wool    yarn    for    ornamental   needlework 
and  knitting,  as  Berlin,  Zephyr,  and  Saxony  wools. 

2.  Cloth    made    from    combed    wool    not    classified 
according  to  material. 

a.  Fabrics  of  all  wool  —  serge,  bunting,   rep,    dress 
goods,  with  weave  effects. 

b.  Wool   and   Cotton  —  union   goods,    serge   linings, 
lathing. 

c.  Wool  and  Silk  —  rich  poplin,  pongee,  henrietta, 
bombazine. 

d.  Alpaca  and  Mohair  —  alpaca,  mohair  dress  goods, 
lusters,  braids,  laces. 

Counts.  Yarn  is  measured  by  a  system  of  " counts" 
-  the  number  of  yards  of  yarn  to  the  pound.  The 
counts  of  worsted  yarn  are  based  on  the  number  of 
hanks  in  one  pound,  each  hank  containing  560  yards. 
Thus  No.  30  worsted  yarn  consists  of  30  hanks  of  560 
yards  each,  or  16,800  yards  to  the  pound. 


CHAPTER   V 
WOOLEN   YARN 

IN  manufacturing  worsted  yarn  every  necessary  opera- 
tion is  performed  to  arrange  the  wool  fibers  so  that  they 
will  lie  smoothly  and  parallel  to  each  other.  In  the 
case  of  woolen  yarn  every  operation  is  performed  so  as 
to  have  the  fibers  lie  in  every  direction  and  to  cross  and 
overlap  each  other. 

To  produce  yarn  of  the  woolen  type  a  set  of 
machinery  entirely  different  from  that  used  in  worsted 
manufacture  is  necessary.  The  wool  is  carded,  but  no 
attempt  is  made  to  get  the  fibers  parallel.  The  reduc- 
tion in  thickness  of  the  sliver  is  not  brought  about  upon 
the  so-called  drawing  frame,  but  by  a  mule  frame 
where  the  drawing  and  twisting  are  done  at  the  same 
operation.  As  neither  combs  nor  gills  are  employed, 
there  is  not  the  same  smooth,  level  yarn,  but  one  which 
possesses  a  fringe-like  covering  or  fuzzy  appearance 
that  makes  the  woolen  yarn  so  valuable. 

The  operation  is  as  follows: 

Carding.  After  washing  the  material  for  woolen  yarn, 
it  is  passed  through  three  carding  processes,  and  from  the 
last  of  them  is  taken  direct  to  the  spinning  frame  to  be 
made  into  yarn.  The  object  of  woolen  carding  is  differ- 
ent from  carding  in  any  other  textile  manufacture. 

50 


WOOLEN   YARN  51 

In  most  processes  of  carding  the  fibers  are  subjected 
to  a  "  combing  "  principle,  and  the  aim  is  to  lay  the 
fibers  parallel.  Woolen  carding  aims  to  open  the 
raw  wool  fiber,  and  put  it  in  a  perfectly  loose  con- 
dition, without  leaning  toward  any  definite  arrange- 
ment. 

The  carding  machines  are  called,  respectively,  first, 
second,  and  third  breaker.  Each  machine  consists  of  a 
complicated  series  of  card-covered  cylinders  of  different 
sizes,  running  at  different  rates  of  speed  —  some- 
times in  the  same  and  sometimes  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. These  rollers  take  the  wool  from  one  another  in 
regular  order  until  it  is  finally  delivered  from  the  third 
breaker  in  a  soft,  fluffy  rope  or  roll  called  a  sliver. 
This  sliver  is  wound  on  a  bobbin,  and  taken  from  the 
card  to  the  mule  spinning  frame. 

The  sliver  on  the  bobbins  from  the  card  is  taken  to 
the  mule  spinning  frame  where  it  is  passed  through 
rolls,  and  the  sliver  attenuated  by  means  of  a  traveling 
carriage. 

Count.  In  the  case  of  woolen  yarn  there  are  numerous 
systems  for  denoting  the  count,  varying  with  the  locality 
in  which  it  is  spun  and  the  character  of  the  product. 
In  the  United  States  there  are  two  systems  employed, 
but  the  one  in  most  general  use  is  known  as  "  Ameri- 
can run  counts."  This  is  based  on  the  number  of 
"  runs,"  each  containing  1,600  yards  to  the  pound. 
Thus,  a  yarn  running  8,000  yards  to  the  pound  is  called 
a  5  "  run  "  yarn,  a  yarn  with  5,200  yards  to  the  pound 
is  equal  to  a  3J  "  run." 


52  TEXTILES 

In  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia  woolen  yarn  is  based 
on  the  "  cut,"  each  cut  consisting  of  300  yards,  and  the 
count  is  the  number  of  cuts  in  a  pound.  Thus,  No.  30 
cut  yarn  consists  of  9,000  yards  to  the  pound.  No.  15 
contains  4,500  yards  to  the  pound. 

Woolen  yarn  is  suitable  for  cloths  in  which  the  color- 
ings are  blended  and  the  fibers  napped,  as  exemplified 
in  tweed,  cheviot,  doeskin,  broadcloth,  beaver,  frieze, 
chinchilla,  blanket,  and  flannel. 


CHAPTER  VI 
WEAVING 

Preparatory  to  Weaving.  Yarn  is  wound  on  bobbins 
on  the  ring  or  mule  spinning  frame.  These  bobbins  are 
transferred  to  a  machine  called  a  spooler  where  the  yarn 
is  re-wound  on  a  spool  preparatory  to  making  the  warp. 

A  warp  is  formed  by  obtaining  a  definite  number  of 
threads  (called  ends),  usually  in  a  precisely  designed 
order  of  given  length,  and  allowing  the  ends  to  wind 
over  a  cylinder  called  a  beam.  In  order  to  do  this  it  is 
necessary  to  have  spools  placed  in  a  definite  position 
in  a  frame  called  a  creel. 

Before  the  warp  can  be  placed  in  the  loom  so  as  to 
weave  or  interlace  it  with  filling  it  must  be  sized. 
This  is  necessary  for  all  single  twist  warp  yarns.  Its 
primary  object  is  to  increase  the  strength  and  smooth- 
ness of  the  thread,  thus  enabling  it  to  withstand  the 
strain  and  friction  due  to  the  weaving  operation. 
Other  objects  of  sizing  are  the  increase  of  weight  and 
bulk  of  the  thread  and  the  improvement  and  feel 
of  the  cloth.  The  warp  is  usually  sized  by  passing  it 
over  a  roller  and  through  a  bath  of  a  starch  mixture. 
The  machine  for  sizing  is  called  a  slasher.  The  warp 
is  now  ready  to  have  the  ends  drawn  in  and  placed  in 
the  loom. 

53 


54  TEXTILES 

Weaving.  Every  woven  piece  of  cloth  is  made  up 
of  two  distinct  systems  of  threads,  known  as  the  warp 
and  filling  (weft),  which  are  interlaced  with  each  other 
to  form  a  fabric.  The  warp  threads  run  lengthways 
of  the  piece  of  cloth,  and  the  filling  runs  across  from 
side  to  side.  The  manner  in  which  the  warp  and  fill- 
ing threads  interlace  with  each  other  is  known  as  the 
weave.  When  the  word  "  end  "  is  used  in  connection 
with  weaving  it  always  signifies  the  warp  thread,  while 
each  filling  thread  is  called  a  pick.  The  fineness  of  the 
cloth  is  always  expressed  as  so  many  picks  and  ends  to 
the  inch.  The  fabrics  produced  by  weaving  are  named 
by  the  manufacturers  or  merchants  who  introduce 
them.  Old  fabrics  are  constantly  appearing  under  new 
names,  usually  with  some  slight  modification  to  suit 
the  public  taste. 

Weaving  Processes.  In  order  to  understand  the 
different  kinds  of  weaves  it  is  necessary  to  know,  or 
at  least  to  understand,  the  process  of  forming  cloth, 
called  weaving.  This  is  done  in  a  machine  called  a 
loom.  The  principal  parts  of  a  loom  are  the  frame, 
the  warp-beam,  the  cloth-roll,  the  heddles,  and  their 
mounting,  the  reed.  The  warp-beam  is  a  wooden 
cylinder  back  of  the  loom  on  which  the  warp  is  wound. 
The  threads  of  the  warp  extend  in  parallel  order  from 
the  warp-beam  to  the  front  of  the  loom,  and  are 
attached  to  the  cloth-roll.  Each  thread  or  group  of 
threads  of  the  warp  passes  through  an  opening  (eye) 
of  a  heddle.  The  warp  threads  are  separated  by  the 
heddles  into  two  or  more  groups,  each  controlled  and 


WEAVING 


55 


automatically  drawn  up  and  down  by  the  motion  of  the 
heddles.  In  the  case  of  small  patterns  the  movement 
of  the  heddles  is  controlled  by  "  cams  "  which  move  up 
the  heddles  by  means  of  a  frame  called  a  harness;  in 


A    SIMPLE    HAND-LOOM 

Showing  frame,  warp  beam,  cloth-roll,  heddles,  and  reed 

larger  patterns  the  heddles  are  controlled  by  harness 
cords  attached  to  a  Jacquard  machine.  Every  time 
the  harness  (the  heddles)  moves  up  or  down,  an  open- 
ing (shed)  is  made  between  the  threads  of  warp, 
through  which  the  shuttle  is  thrown. 

The  filling  thread  is  wound  on  a  bobbin  which  is 
fastened  in  the  shuttle  and  which  permits  the  yarn  to 


56  TEXTILES 

unwind  as  it  passes  to  and  fro.  As  fast  as  each  filling 
thread  is  interlaced  with  warp  it  is  pressed  close  to  the 
previous  one  by  means  of  a  reed  which  advances  toward 
and  recedes  from  the  cloth  after  each  passage  of  the 
shuttle.  This  is  done  to  make  the  cloth  firm.  There 
are  various  movements  on  the  loom  for  controlling  the 
tension  of  the  warp,  for  drawing  forward  or  taking  up 
the  cloth  as  it  is  produced,  and  for  stopping  the  loom  in 
the  case  of  breakage  of  the  warp  thread  or  the  running 
out  of  the  filling  thread. 

Weaving  may  be  performed  by  hand  in  hand-looms 
or  by  steam-power  in  power-looms,  but  the  arrange- 
ments for  both  are  to  a  certain  extent  the  same.  A 
great  number  of  different  kinds  of  power-looms  are 
manufactured  for  producing  the  various  classes  of  tex- 
tiles in  use  at  the  present  time.  These  looms  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  the  material  which  they  are 
designed  to  weave,  as  the  ribbon-loom,  blanket-loom, 
burlaps-  and  sacking-loom,  plush-loom,  double-cloth 
loom,  rug-loom,  fancy  cotton-loom,  silk-loom,  worsted- 
loom,  etc. 

Weaving  is  distinct  from  knitting,  netting,  looping, 
and  braiding,  which  are  operations  depending  on  the 
interlacing  of  a  single  thread,  or  single  set  of  threads, 
while  weaving  is  done  with  two  distinct  and  separate 
sets  of  threads. 

Classes  of  Weave.  The  character  of  the  weave  offers 
the  best  basis  for  classification  of  woven  goods.  Nearly 
all  the  varieties  of  cloth  may  be  classified  from  the 
following  weaves: 


58  TEXTILES 

(1)  Plain-weaving,  (5)  Double-cloth- weaving, 

(2)  Twill-weaving,  (6)  Pile-weaving, 

(3)  Satin-weaving,  (7)  Gauze-weaving, 

(4)  Figure-weaving,  (8)  Lappet-weaving. 

Plain  or  Homespun  Weave.  Plain  cloth  is  the  sim- 
plest cloth  that  can  be  woven.  In  this  weave  one  series 
of  threads  (filling)  crosses  another  series  (warp)  at 
right  angles,  passing  over  one  and  under  one  in  regular 
order,  thus  forming  a  simple  interlacement  of  the 
threads.  This  combination  makes  a  strong  and  firm 
cloth,  but  does  not  give  a  close  or  a  heavy  fabric,  as 
the  threads  do  not  lie  as  close  and  compact  as  they  do 
in  other  weaves.  In  plain  cloth,  if  not  fulled  or  shrunk 
in  the  finish,  the  result  is  a  fabric  perforated  with  large 
or  small  openings  according  to  the  size  or  twist  of  yarn 
used.  If  heavy  or  coarse  threads  are  used  the  perfo- 
rations will  be  large;  if  finer  threads,  the  perforations 
will  be  smaller. 

This  weave  is  used  in  the  production  of  sheeting, 
muslin,  lawn,  gingham,  broadcloth,  taffeta,  etc.  In 
plain  weaving  it  is  possible  to  produce  stripes  by  the 
use  of  bands  of  colored  warp,  and  checks  where  both 
warp  and  weft  are  parti-colored.  This  weave  is  com- 
monly used  when  the  cloth  is  intended  to  be  ornamented 
with  printed  patterns.  In  weaving  cloth  of  only  one 
color  but  one  shuttle  is  used,  while  for  the  production  of 
checks,  plaids,  etc.,  two  or  more  shuttles  are  required. 

Twill  Weave.  A  twill  weave  has  diagonal  lines  across 
the  cloth.  In  this  class  of  weaves  the  filling  yarn 
or  threads  pass  over  1  and  under  2,  or  over  1  and 


WEAVING  59 

under  3,  4,  5,  or  6,  or  over  2  or  3  and  under  1,  2,  3, 
or  4,  or  over  4  and  under  4,  3,  6,  etc.  Each  filling 
thread  does  not  pass  under  and  over  the  same  set  of 
warp  threads,  as  this  would  not  give  the  desired  inter- 
lacings.  Instead  the  order  of  interlacing  moves  one 


GIRL  DRAWING  EACH  THREAD  OF  WARP  THROUGH  THE  REED 

AND  HARNESS  READY  TO  BE  PLACED  ON  LOOM 

A,  warp  beam.     B,  warp.     C,  harness    frame 

thread  to  the  right  or  left  with  each  filling  thread  that 
is  woven.  If  there  are  the  same  number  of  threads  to 
an  inch  in  warp  and  filling,  twill  lines  will  form  an 
angle  of  45  degrees;  if  the  warps  are  closer  together 
than  the  filling,  the  angle  will  be  steeper;  if  the  filling 
threads  are  closer  together  the  lines  will  approach 


60  TEXTILES 

more  nearly  the  horizontal.  Different  effects  are  ob- 
tained in  patterns  by  variation  in  the  sizes  of  the  yarn 
and  twist,  by  the  use  of  heavy  threads  to  form  cords, 
ribs,  etc.,  and  by  the  mixture  of  vari-colored  materials  in 
the  yarn.  Often  one  form  of  twill-weave  is  combined  with 
another  to  produce  a  fancy  twill- weave.  The  object  of 
the  twill-weaving  is  to  increase  the  bulk  and  strength  of  a 
fabric,  or  to  ornament  it.  The  disposition  of  the  threads 
permits  the  introduction  of  more  material  into  the  cloth, 
and  hence  renders  it  heavier,  and  of  closer  construction 
than  in  the  case  of  plain-weaving. 

Satin  Weaves.  The  object  of  a  satin  weave  is  to 
distribute  the  interlacings  of  the  warp  and  filling  in 
such  a  manner  that  no  trace  of  the  diagonal  (twill) 
line  will  be  seen  on  the  face  of  the  cloth.  In  weaving 
a  satin  design  the  filling  thread  is  made  to  pass  under 
1  and  over  4,  7,  9,  11,  or  more  if  a  larger  plush  satin 
is  required.  The  raising  of  the  warp  end  to  allow 
the  filling  to  pass  under  is  done  in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  twill  lines  from  showing  in  the  cloth.  The 
result  is  that  practically  all  of  the  filling  is  on  the  face 
of  the  cloth.  This  is  called  a  filling-face  satin  weave. 
A  warp-face  satin  weave  may  be  produced  by  reversing 
the  order;  .  in  this  case  practically  all  of  the  warp  is 
brought  to  the  face  of  the  cloth.  In  this  way  a  worsted 
warp  and  a  cotton  filling  might  be  woven  so  that  prac- 
tically all  of  the  warp  would  show  on  the  cloth,  and 
give  it  the  appearance  of  a  worsted  fabric.  A  number 
of  classes  of  silk  goods  are  made  in  this  way,  with  a  silk 
filling  covering  a  cotton  warp. 


WEAVING  61 

This  weave  produces  an  even,  close,  smooth  surface, 
capable  of  reflecting  the  light  to  the  best  advantage, 
and  having  a  lustrous  appearance  which  makes  it 
resemble  satin  cloth.  Satin  cloth  is  made  of  silk  using  a 
satin  weave. 

Satin  weaves  are  used  very  largely  in  producing  dif- 
ferent styles  of  cotton  and  silk  fabrics,  and  are  also 
frequently  found  in  woolen  goods.  They  are  more 
extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  damask  and 
table-covers  than  for  any  other  class  of  goods.  Satin 
stripes  are  frequent  in  madras,  shirtings,  and  fancy  dress 
goods  in  connection  with  plain  and  figured  weaves. 

Figure  Weaving.  To  produce  complicated  and 
irregular  patterns  in  the  loom  a  large  number  of  different 
openings  (sheds)  must  be  made  in  the  warp,  and  to 
secure  such  a  large  number  an  attachment  is  placed  on 
top  of  the  loom  called  a  Jacquard  apparatus.  The 
Jacquard  is  merely  an  apparatus  for  automatically  select- 
ing warp  threads,  by  which  each  separate  one  can  be 
made  to  move  independently  of  any  of  the  others.  It 
is  provided  with  weighted  strings  attached  to  each  of 
the  warp  threads.  The  weighted  strings  are  controlled 
by  wire  needles  which  are  in  turn  controlled  by  perfo- 
rated cards.  Each  motion  of  the  loom  changes  their 
position  and  allows  some  needles  to  go  through  the  holes 
in  the  cards,  thus  drawing  up  the  warp,  while  others 
strike  the  card  and  leave  the  warp  down.  In  this  way 
the  perforations  of  the  cards  determine  the  figure  of 
the  patterns.  The  Jacquard  is  chiefly  used  to  produce 
patterns  of  great  width  in  which  all  or  most  of  the 


62  TEXTILES 

threads  in  the  pattern  move  independently.  For  the 
weaving  of  elaborate  effects  and  flowing  lines  it  is 
practically  indispensable.  All  elaborate  designs  are 
classed  under  the  name  of  Jacquards. 

Double  Cloth.  Double  cloth  is  a  descriptive  term 
applied  in  weaving  to  fabrics  produced  by  combining 
two  single  cloths  into  one.  Each  one  of  these  single 
cloths  is  constructed  with  its  own  systems  of  warp  and 
filling,  the  combination  being  effected  in  the  loom  by 
interlacing  some  of  the  warp  or  filling  threads  of  one 
cloth  into  the  other  cloth  at  certain  intervals,  thus  fasten- 
ing them  securely  together.  The  reasons  for  making 
double-cloths  are  many.  Sometimes  it  is  done  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  heavy  weight  fabrics  by  using  cheaper  ma- 
terials for  the  cloth  forming  the  back;  again  it  may  be 
to  produce  double-face  fabric;  it  allows  great  freedom 
for  the  formation  of  colored  patterns  which  may  or 
may  not  correspond  in  pattern  on  both  sides;  it  is  the 
basis  of  tubular  weaving  such  as  is  practised  for  mak- 
ing pillow  cases,  pockets,  seamless  grain  bags,  etc.; 
more  frequently,  the  object  is  to  increase  the  bulk  or 
strength  of  certain  kinds  of  fabrics,  such  as  heavy 
overcoatings,  cloakings,  pile-fabrics,  golf-cloth,  rich 
silk,  etc. 

Pile  Weave.  A  pile  weave  is  a  general  term  under 
which  are  classed  numerous  varieties  of  cloth  woven 
with  a  pile  surface,  as  plush,  velvet,  velveteen,  and  car- 
peting of  various  kinds.  Turkish  towels  are  an  excel- 
lent illustration  of  pile  weaving.  A  pile  surface  is  a 
closely  set,  elastic  face  covering  various  kinds  of 


WEAVING  63 

woolen,  silk,  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  consists  of  threads 
standing  close  together,  either  in  the  form  of  loops 
or  as  erect  thread-ends  sheared  off  smooth  so  as  to 
form  a  uniform  and  even  surface.  In  the  production  of 
a  pile  fabric  a  third  thread  is  introduced  into  the  weav- 
ing and  formed  into  loops  usually  by  carrying  it  over 
the  wires  laid  across  the  breadth  of  the  cloth.  The 
wires  are  afterward  drawn  out,  leaving  the  loops 
standing;  the  loops  may  then  be  cut  so  as  to  form  a 
cut  pile,  as  in  velvet  and  plush,  or  they  may  be  left  in 
their  original  form  as  in  Brussels  carpet  and  Turkish 
towels. 

Gauze  Weaving.  In  gauze  weaving  all  the  warp 
threads  are  not  parallel  to  each  other,  but  are  made  to 
intertwist  more  or  less  among  themselves,  thereby 
favoring  the  production  of  light,  open  fabrics,  in  which 
many  ornamental  lace-like  combinations  can  be  ob- 
tained. Two  sets  of  warp  threads  are  used,  one  being 
the  ground  warp  and  the  other  the  "  douping,"  the 
latter  performing  the  entwining  process.  Gauze  is 
especially  characterized  by  its  openness  and  yields  the 
lightest  and  strongest  fabric  with  the  least  material. 
When  gauze  is  combined  with  plain  weaving  it  is  styled 
"  leno."  Gauze  fabrics  are  designed  for  women's  sum- 
mer gowns,  flounces,  window-curtains,  etc. 

Lappet  Weaving.  Lappet  weaving,  really  a  form 
of  embroidery,  is  used  for  producing  small  designs  on 
cloth  by  means  of  needles  placed  in  a  sliding-frame,  the 
figures  being  stitched  into  the  warp.  Elaborate  figures 
are  beyond  the  range  of  lappet  weaving,  but  there 


64  TEXTILES 

are  many  small  effects  that  can  be  economically  pro- 
duced in  this  manner,  such  as  the  detached  spots  in 
dotted  swiss,  and  narrow  and  continuous  figures  run- 
ning more  or  less  into  stripes.  This  form  of  weaving 
imitates  embroidery  and  is  used  mainly  on  plain  and 
gauze  fabrics. 


CHAPTER  VII 
DYEING  AND   FINISHING 

Dyeing.  When  a  fabric  or  fiber  is  impregnated 
with  a  uniform  color  over  its  whole  surface,  it  is  said 
to  be  "  simply  dyed.'7  On  the  other  hand,  if  distinct 
patterns  or  designs  in  one  or  more  colors  have  been 
impressed  upon  a  fabric,  it  is  called  printing. 

Vegetable  dyes  were  formerly  used,  but  since  the 
coal  tar  dyes  have  been  discovered  the  latter  are  used 
entirely.  Over  fourteen  thousand  colors  have  been 
produced  from  coal  tar.  Different  fibers  and  fabrics 
attract  dyestuffs  with  varying  degrees  of  force.  Wool 
and  silk  attract  better  than  cotton  and  linen. 

Wool  Dyeing.  The  methods  of  dyeing  wool  differ 
considerably  from  those  employed  for  cotton  and  other 
vegetable  fibers.  They  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts:  piece  dyed,  cross  dyed,  and  yarn  dyed. 

Piece  goods  are  those  woven  with  yarns  in  their  gray 
or  natural  state,  and  then  cleansed  and  dyed  in  the 
piece  to  such  colors  as  are  required.  They  are  woven 
in  plain  weaves  and  in  a  great  variety  of  twills  —  in  fact, 
in  all  styles  of  weaves  —  and  are  also  made  on  the  Jac- 
quard  loom.  The  principal  fabrics  in  this  classification 
are  all  wool  serges,  cheviots,  hopsackings,  suitings, 
satines,  prunellas,  whipcords,  melroses,  Venetian  broad- 

65 


66  TEXTILES 

cloths,  zibelines,  rainproof  cloths;  nun's  veiling,  can- 
vases, grenadines,  albatrosses,  crepes,  and  French 
flannels;  silk  warp  Henriettas,  voiles,  and  sublimes. 
Whenever  it  is  possible,  it  is  better  to  dye  textile 
fabrics  in  the  form  of  woven  pieces  than  in  the  yarn. 
During  the  process  of  weaving  it  is  impossible  to  avoid 
getting  yarn  dirty  and  somewhat  greasy,  and  the 
scouring  necessary  to  remove  this  dirt  impairs  the  color 
used  in  weaving.  Piece  dyeing  is  the  cheapest  method 
of  applying  color  to  textiles.  The  chief  fault  of  piece 
dyeing  is  the  danger  of  cloud  spots,  stains,  etc.,  which 
do  not  appear  in  the  other  two  methods.  Then  again 
in  the  case  of  thick,  closely  woven  goods  the  dyestuff 
does  not  penetrate  into  the  fabric,  and  the  interior 
remains  nearly  white. 

The  cloth  is  dyed  by  means  of  passing  over  a  roller 
into  a  dye  vat.  Small  pieces  or  "  swatches  "  are  taken 
from  the  ends  of  the  fabric,  and  compared  with  the 
pattern.  For  it  must  be  remembered  that  no  two  lots 
of  crude  dyes  are  of  equal  strength,  and  the  wools  and 
cottons  of  different  growths  and  seasons  vary  greatly, 
so  that  the  use  of  a  fixed  quantity  of  dye  to  a  given 
amount  of  goods  will  not  always  give  the  exact  shade. 
In  comparing  a  sample  with  the  pattern  the  two  are 
placed  side  by  side  below  the  eyes  (reflected  light), 
and  then  held  up  to  the  light  and  the  eye  directed 
along  the  surface.  A  judgment  must  be  formed  quickly, 
as  a  prolonged  gaze  fatigues  the  eye  and  renders  it 
unable  to  perceive  fine  shades  of  difference. 

Cross   Dyed.     Cross-dyed   goods   may  be   described 


DYEING   AND   FINISHING 


67 


as  fabrics  woven  with  black  or  colored  cotton  warps 
and  wool  or  worsted  filling  and  afterwards  dyed  in  the 
piece.  Since  cotton  has  not  the  same  attraction  for 
dyestuffs  as  wool  it  is  a  difficult  task  to  dye  a  fabric 
woven  with  cotton  and  wool  so  that  both  fibers  will  be 


DYE   ROOM 

1.  Dye  tub  or  vat  containing  dyestuffs. 

2.  Rolls  or  cylinders  upon  which  cloth  is  wound. 

3.  Cloth  leaving  dye  tub  —  being  wound  upon  No.  2  cylinder. 


identical  in  depth  of  color,  tone,  and  brightness.  In 
some  cases  it  is  possible  to  dye  a  mixed  fabric  at  a  single 
operation,  but  the  usual  process  is  to  dye  the  wool  in 
yarn  state  and  then  dye  the  warp  a  color  as  near  the 
color  of  the  wool  as  possible.  In  the  weaving  operation 
the  wool  is  thrown  to  the  surface.  In  another  method 
the  warp  is  dyed  and  woven  with  a  white  wool  or 


68  TEXTILES 

worsted  filling,  and  dyed  in  the  piece  with  a  dyestuff 
that  will  not  affect  the  cotton.  In  this  way  the  cotton 
does  not  take  the  wool  dye,  but  retains  its  original 
color.  This  class  of  work  is  generally  used  in  mohair, 
alpaca,  and  luster  fabrics,  because  the  natural  brilliancy 
of  the  luster  wool,  alpaca,  or  mohair  in  the  filling  is  not 
impaired  as  would  be  the  case  if  the  cotton  in  the  goods 
Were  subjected  to  a  cotton-dye  bath  after  being  woven. 
The  principal  cloths  in  this  classification  are  cotton, 
warp  figured  melroses,  Florentines,  glaces,  brilliantines, 
lusters,  alpacas,  and  mohairs;  rainproof  cloths,  and 
fancy  waistings,  and  in  these  may  be  found  the  same 
great  variety  of  weaves  and  patterns  that  is  to  be  found 
in  the  piece-dyed  goods  already  described. 

Yarn  Dyed.  Yarn-dyed  goods  differ  from  those  pre- 
viously described  in  that  they  are  made  of  yarns  that 
are  dyed  before  being  woven,  or  yarns  spun  from  dyed 
wool.  Wool  may  be  dyed  in  the  raw  state  (fleece) , 
slubbing,  or  yarn.  Fleece  dying  is  preferable  for  goods 
intended  to  stand  friction,  and  that  in  spite  of  wear  and 
tear  must  preserve  their  color.  It  is  preferred  for  dark 
colored  goods  where  much  friction  is  to  be  encountered, 
but  is  seldom  used  for  light  colors,  since  these  would 
be  soiled  during  subsequent  processes  of  manufacture. 
In  this  case  every  fiber  is  colored  uniformly  all  over. 
The  yarn  from  this  wool  and  the  cloth  woven  from  it 
are  dyed  through  and  through  and  do  not  become 
grayish  or  whitish  by  wear  and  tear. 

Slubbing  dyeing  is  preferred  to  yarn  dyeing,  for  the 
dyestuff  penetrates  the  loosely  twisted  roving,  and  if 


DYEING   AND   FINISHING  69 

unevenly  dyed,  the  subsequent  operations  equalize 
most  thoroughly  the  irregularities  in  color. 

Yarn  dyeing  is  especially  applicable  to  checks,  plaids, 
and  suitings,  and  in  their  manufacture  the  drop  box 
loom  (a  loom  with  two  or  more  shuttles)  is  used.  Goods 
manufactured  under  this  classification  include  cotton 
warp  checks  and  mixtures;  all  wool  homespuns,  mix- 
ture coatings  and  suitings,  storm  skirtings,  rainproof 
cloths.  These  goods  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of 
weaves,  the  effect  in  each  being  secured  by  the  color 
and  the  weave. 

Piece-dyed  fabrics  may  be  distinguished  from  yarn- 
dyed  fabrics  by  unraveling  threads  of  each  kind.  In 
the  case  of  yarn-dyed  fabrics  the  dyestuff  has  pene- 
trated through  the  yarn,  while  in  the  case  of  piece-dyed 
fabrics  the  dyestuff  has  no  chance  to  penetrate  as 
completely  as  the  yarn-dyed  fabric. 

Textile  Printing.  Printed  fabrics  such  as  print  cloths 
can  generally  be  distinguished  by  observing  the  back 
side  of  the  cloth.  If  the  figure  or  pattern  on  the  face  of 
the  cloth  does  not  penetrate  through  to  the  back  but  only 
shows  the  outline,  the  fabric  has  been  printed.  Fabrics 
are  printed  by  coming  into  contact  with  rotating  rollers 
on  which  the  pattern  is  engraved. 

The  attraction  of  cotton  for  coloring  is  generally 
feebler  than  that  of  wool  or  silk.  Few  of  the  natural 
dyestuffs  attach  themselves  permanently  without  use 
of  a  mordant.  A  mordant  is  a  substance  which  has  an 
affinity  for,  or  which  can  penetrate,  the  fiber  to  be 
colored,  and  which  possesses  the  power  of  combining 


70  TEXTILES 

with  the  dyestuff  and  thus  forming  an  insoluble  com- 
pound upon  the  fiber.  Cotton  is  dyed  in  an  unspun 
state,  and  also  as  yarn  or  spun  thread,  either  in  the  hank 
or  skein.  Silk  is  dyed  in  unspun  skeins,  although  to  a 
considerable  extent  it  is  also  dyed  in  the  piece. 

Styles.  Since  styles  and  designs  are  constantly 
changing  it  is  necessary  for  the  mills  to  meet  this  de- 
mand by  producing  new  styles.  Some  of  the  patterns 
which  are  at  this  time  considered  to  be  in  the  best 
style  would  have  appeared  much  out  of  date  two  or 
three  years  ago,  while  perhaps  a  few  years  hence,  the 
patterns  which  are  now  almost  obsolete  will,  with  some 
changes,  become  the  most  popular  sellers  of  the  season. 
As  the  mill  officials  or  designers  are  not  out  among  the 
trade,  they  are  not  in  a  position  to  judge  what  lines  or 
patterns  would  most  likely  appeal  to  the  market.  This 
information  is  obtained  by  the  "  styler  "  of  the  selling 
house.  The  styler  receives  all  the  latest  foreign  samples 
and  fashion  papers  from  abroad,  and  often  goes  or 
sends  his  representative  to  Europe  to  ascertain  what 
goods,  designs,  and  colors  are  taking  well  over  there. 
The  selling  agent  or  styler  then  supplies  the  designing 
department  of  the  mill  with  all  the  samples,  information, 
and  suggestions  necessary  in  getting  out  the  samples. 

Construction  of  Cloth.  In  reproducing  a  sample  of 
cloth  in  the  mill  it  is  necessary  that  the  construction 
of  the  cloth  be  first  known,  that  is,  there  must  be 
ascertained  the  width,  warp  ends,  and  picks  per  inch, 
the  number  or  size  of  the  yarn  used  for  the  warp,  the 
number  that  is  used  for  the  filling,  and  the  number  of 


DYEING   AND   FINISHING  71 

ounces  per  yard  or  yards  per  pound.  Then  the  inter- 
lacings  of  the  threads  in  the  sample  must  be  picked  out 
in  order  to  get  the  design  or  weave  on  the  design  paper, 
from  which  the  data  are  obtained  for  regulating  the 
movement  of  the  harness  or  heddles.  Design  paper  is 
paper  ruled  by  lines  into  a  number  of  squares.  An 
imitation  of  the  cloth  can  be  produced  on  this  paper  by 
showing  the  interlacings  of  the  warp  and  filling.  This 
is  done  by  filling  in  certain  squares  with  paint,  or  pencil 
marks,  while  the  others  are  left  empty.  In  practical 
work  it  is  the  general  custom  to  make  a  cross  with  a 
pencil  to  indicate  the  squares  that  are  to  be  filled  in, 
thus  showing  that  the  warp  thread  is  over  the  filling 
thread  at  this  point.  When  a  square  is  left  blank  it 
shows  that  the  warp  thread  is  under  the  filling  at  this 
point.  When  a  warp  thread  is  up  on  a  certain  pick, 
the  harness  which  controls  this  thread  must  be  raised 
on  this  pick. 

Finishing.  The  fabric  as  it  comes  from  the  loom 
is  in  an  imperfect  condition  for  use.  When  worsted 
fabrics  leave  the  loom  they  require  but  few  and  simple 
finishing  operations,  and  in  this  respect  differ  much 
from  woolen  cloths,  which  require  elaborate  finishing 
operations.  The  finishing  processes  of  woolen  and 
worsted  cloths  are  similar.  The  following  description 
of  processes  and  machines  gives  a  clear  idea  of  the 
necessary  finishing  processes  for  a  standard  woolen  or 
worsted  cloth ;  for  particular  styles  of  finish  the  processes 
must  be  varied  in  accordance  with  the  particular 
requirements  of  the  style  of  fabric  in  hand. 


72  TEXTILES 

Perching.  The  fabric  as  it  comes  from  the  loom 
receives  a  perching  and  measuring  inspection  at  the 
weave  room  before  leaving  for  the  finishing  room. 
This  examination  is  to  detect  quickly  such  imperfec- 
tions as  require  prompt  attention  at  the  loom. 

Burling.  Every  knot  that  has  been  tied  in  the 
threads  during  winding,  dressing,  beaming,  and  weaving, 
must  be  looked  for  and  felt  for  during  burling,  carefully 
drawn  to  the  surface  of  the  cloth,  and  then  clipped  off 
with  the  scissors,  leaving  the  ends  long  enough  so  that 
no  space  without  a  thread  will  occur.  Threads  which 
are  found  loose  on  the  face  or  back  of  cloth,  caused  by 
the  weaver  having  tied  in  a  broken  end,  should  be  cut 
off  and  not  pulled  off.  All  places  where  threads  are 
not  woven  in  are  marked  so  that  the  sewing-in  girl 
(mender)  can  adjust  such  places.  The  cloth  is  sub- 
jected to  perching  again.  It  is  examined  for  imper- 
fections, and  when  these  are  found,  they  are  marked 
with  chalk  to  call  the  attention  of  the  menders  to  such 
places. 

Mending.  The  object  of  darning  or  mending  is  to 
make  all  repairs  in  the  structure  of  the  cloth  before  the 
process  of  fulling.  The  mender  must  have  a  good  eye  for 
colors  necessary  to  produce  various  effects  and  for  the 
interlacing  of  the  threads.  More  exact  work  is  required 
for  threadbare  fabrics  that  require  little  if  any  finishing 
afterward,  than  in  dealing  with  a  face  finish  fabric, 
where  the  nap  is  to  be  raised  and  will  cover  many  im- 
perfections so  that  they  will  never  be  noticed  in  the 
finished  cloth. 


DYEING   AND   FINISHING  73 

Fulling.  The  object  of  fulling  is  to  render  woolen 
and  worsted  goods  stronger  and  firmer  in  body.  Full- 
ing is  similar  to  felting,  the  principal  object  of  each 
being  to  condense  the  fibers,  thereby  increasing  the 
firmness.  Certain  varieties  of  woolens  are  fulled  nearly 
one-half  their  original  width  and  length.  The  process 
of  fulling  includes  three  steps:  cleansing,  scouring,  and 
condensing  the  fibers  of  the  cloth.  The  object  of  scour- 
ing is  to  get  rid  of  oil  used  preparatory  to  spinning,  and 
to  remove  from  the  cloth  stains  and  the  sizing  used  in 
dressing  the  warp.  The  cloth  is  first  saturated  with  hot 
water  and  soap,  and  is  then  scoured  and  rubbed  between 
the  slow-revolving  rollers  of  the  machine  from  two  to 
eighteen  hours,  according  to  the  character  of  goods  and 
the  amount  of  shrinkage  desired.  The  more  prolonged 
the  operation,  the  more  the  material  shrinks.  When 
sufficiently  fulled,  the  length  of  cloth  is  scoured  to  free 
it  from  soap.  This  is  done  with  water,  warmed  at  first, 
but  gradually  cooled,  until  at  the  end  the  cloth  is  worked 
in  cold  water.  Next  the  cloth  is  stretched  uniformly 
in  all  directions,  so  that  it  may  dry  evenly  without 
wrinkles  or  curls.  Sometimes  the  cloth  is  placed  in  a 
hot-air  chamber  to  hasten  the  drying.  The  fulling  or 
shrinking  is  effected  by  the  application  of  moisture, 
heat,  and  pressure.  Every  one  is  familiar  with  the 
fact  that  woolen  blankets,  flannels,  and  hosiery  tend  to 
contract  with  frequent  washings,  gaining  in  thickness 
and  solidity  what  they  lose  in  elasticity.  Such  shrink- 
age is  greatly  hastened  when  they  are  rubbed  vigor- 
ously in  hot  water  and  then  allowed  to  cool  suddenly. 


74  TEXTILES 

This  change  is  due  to  the  physical  properties  of  the 
wool  fiber. 

Such  goods  as  beavers,  kerseys,  meltons,  and  fancy 
cassimeres  are  seldom  fulled  more  than  one-sixth  of 
their  woven  width,  while  worsted  goods  are  shrunk  but 
a  small  fraction  of  their  woven  width.  The  amount 
of  fulling  received  is  the  distinguishing  feature  of  many 
varieties  of  cloth.  In  the  treatment  of  broadcloth, 
doeskin,  and  all  nap  finished  woolens,  the  fulling  is 
carried  to  a  point  where  the  fibers  become  densely 
matted,  obliterating  all  traces  of  the  weave  and  giving 
the  cloth  the  appearance  of  felt. 

Crabbing.  After  the  cloth  has  been  dried  in  the 
hydro  extractor,  where  it  throws  off  superfluous  mois- 
ture, it  must  be  stretched  full  width  for  the  future 
finishing  processes,  and  "  set  "  at  this  width. 

Crabbing  consists  of  two  operations,  first  the  loosen- 
ing process,  then  the  setting  process.  Goods  are  run  on 
a  cylinder,  then  passed  over  several  rolls,  and  are  kept 
tight  so  as  to  avoid  wrinkles.  The  cylinders  are  im- 
mersed in  hot  water  and  the  goods  are  allowed  to  rotate 
in  this  water  for  about  twenty  minutes,  after  which 
they  are  taken  out  for  one  or  two  hours.  They  are  then 
returned  to  the  machine  for  about  twenty-five  minutes 
and  are  subjected  to  boiling  and  also  to  additional 
pressure.  The  boiling  water  sets  the  fabric  and  the 
additional  pressure  gives  the  desired  finish. 

Tentering.  The  object  of  tentering1  is  to  straighten 
and  level  the  fabric.  After  the  cloth  leaves  the  ten- 
1  Tentering  is  carried  on  in  the  English  mills. 


DYEING   AND   FINISHING  75 

taring  machine  it  has  lost  its  natural  moisture,  and  is 
not  at  all  fitted,  as  far  as  fiber  condition  is  concerned, 
for  the  napping.  To  bring  it  into  a  fit  state  for  this 
operation  it  is  passed  through  a  trough  containing  a 
brush  which  gives  it  the  desired  moisture.  It  is  then 
ready  for  napping. 

Napping.  Most  cloths  at  this  stage  of  finishing  are 
more  or  less  unsightly  on  account  of  long  and  irregular 
fibers  on  the  surface.  A  nap  may  be  raised  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  fabric  for  various  reasons:  in  order  to  render 
the  material  warmer,  softer,  or  more  pleasant  to  the 
touch,  as  in  the  case  of  blankets  and  flannels  intended 
to  be  worn  next  to  the  body;  or  for  the  purposes  of 
increasing  the  durability  of  the  fabric,  as  in  the  case  of 
melton,  kersey,  broadcloth,  and  similar  goods;  or  a  nap 
may  be  raised  with  a  view  to  removing  all  the  fiber 
from  the  underlying  structure  in  order  to  leave  the  pat- 
tern of  the  cloth  well  defined  and  free  from  hairiness. 
The  covering  of  nap  over  the  surface  of  the  fabric 
tends  to  conceal  many  defects  caused  by  imperfect 
yarns  and  faulty  weaving.  Coarse,  inferior  yarns  at 
best  produce  an  unsightly  fabric,  but  when  the  cloth 
constructed  of  such  threads  is  finished  with  a  fine,  deli- 
cate nap  the  surface  takes  on  a  softer  and  richer  ap- 
pearance. Not  only  are  the  defects  in  the  structure 
concealed,  but  the  material  is  rendered  more  sightly 
and  desirable  and  appears  to  be  more  expensive  than 
it  really  is. 

The  operation  of  napping  is  performed  by  passing  the 
cloth  in  a  tightly  stretched  condition  over  a  revolving 


76  TEXTILES 

cylinder  covered  with  teasels  or  steel  hooks.  These 
thousands  of  little  hooks  scratch  the  entire  surface  of  the 
cloth,  opening  up  the  short  fibers  and  covering  the  whole 
with  a  nap.  Since  the  fibers  are  of  different  lengths  it 
is  necessary  to  brush  the  fabric  vigorously  and  then 
pass  it  through  the  shearing  machine  in  order  to  make 
an  even  and  uniform  length.  The  shearing  machine 
acts  on  the  principle  of  the  lawn  mower  and  either  cuts 
the  nap  completely  or  leaves  a  pile  surface.  The  cloth 
is  cleaned  by  passing  through  a  brushing  machine. 

Pressing  Machine.  The  fabric  now  requires  con- 
solidating and  lustering,  or  "  smarting  up  "  in  appear- 
ance —  practically  pressing  —  before  it  is  forwarded 
to  the  warehouse.  This  is  done  by  passing  the  cloth 
over  a  pressing  roll  heated  to  a  high  temperature. 
Having  obtained  a  satisfactory  luster,  it  is  necessary 
to  fix  this  by  winding  the  cloth  on  rollers  and  allowing 
dry  steam  to  pass  through  the  piece.  This  fixes  a  per- 
manent luster  and  finish  on  the  piece  and  sets  it  so  as 
to  prevent  shrinkage.  The  cloth  is  now  packed  and 
sent  to  the  jobbers  or  tailors  to  be  cut  up  into  suits. 

Theories  of  Coloring  in  Textile  Design.  The  three 
primary  elements  of  textile  design  are  weave,  combina- 
tion of  form,  and  blend  of  colors.  They  enter  either 
separately  or  in  connection  with  each  other  into  every 
species  of  loom  effect.  Weave  relates  specifically  to 
the  build  or  structure  of  the  cloth  and  is  an  indispen- 
sable factor  in  any  type  of  cloth.  Schemes  of  weaves 
will  produce  in  one  operation  an  even  and  firm  cloth, 
decorated  with  a  type  of  pattern  that  usually  consists 


DYEING   AND   FINISHING  77 

of  minute  parts  but  which  is  pronounced  and  decided 
in  combination.  Combination  of  forms  is  a  surface 
decoration  obtained  by  uniting  straight  and  curved 
lines.  Color  brightens  and  improves  the  qualities  of 
the  design.  In  fact,  the  discarding  of  color  shades 
would  diminish  the  elegance  of  the  design  and  im- 
poverish its  appearance  and  would  practically  destroy 
the  woolen  industry.  Whether  the  pattern  be  stripe, 
check,  figure,  or  intermingled  effect,  it  obtains  its  out- 
line and  detail  from  methods  of  coloring  adopted.  In 
worsted  there  is  a  larger  diversity  of  weave  design  than 
in  woolen;  but  still  colors  are  very  extensively  employed 
to  develop  effects  due  to  weave  and  form,  and  also  to 
impart  a  cheerful  and  lustrous  appearance  to  cloth. 

Patterns  in  dress  fabrics,  shirtings,  and  other  articles 
made  entirely  of  cotton  are  frequently  mere  combina- 
tions of  fancy  shades,  while  fabrics  composed  of  silk 
and  jute  materials,  including  silk  ties,  handkerchiefs, 
etc.  —  in  fact  the  cloths  in  which  fancy  shades  are 
used  —  show  that  coloring  and  its  combinations  in  all 
woven  product  embellished  with  design,  are  elements 
which  give  tone  and  character  to  the  styles.  Though 
the  cloth  may  be  soft  to  the  touch,  substantially  made, 
of  uniform  structure,  and  skilfully  finished,  yet  a  lack 
of  brightness  and  elegance  in  coloring  so  powerfully 
detracts  from  the  appearance  of  the  pattern  that  these 
qualities  alone  are  not  sufficient. 

On  subjecting  cotton,  silk,  wool,  and  worsted  goods 
to  inspection,  color  is  found  to  have  a  different  tone 
or  cast  in  each  fabric.  Fancy  colors  in  cotton,  while 


78  TEXTILES 

decidedly  firm  and  clear  in  effect,  are  non-lustrous,  raw, 
and  dull  in  toning.  Silk  colorings,  on  the  contrary, 
possess  both  compactness  and  brilliancy;  woolen  color- 
ings have  a  unique  depth  and  saturation  of  hue  charac- 
teristic of  the  material  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  woolen  goods;  while  worsted  colorings  are  bright, 
definite,  and  smart  in  appearance. 

These  differences  are  due  to  the  physical  properties 
of  the  several  fibers.  Thus  a  filament  of  silk  is  trans- 
parent and  shines  like  smooth  glass  when  light  falls 
upon  it;  that  of  wool  is  solid  and  opaque  in  the  center, 
but  its  exterior  consists  of  a  multitude  of  semi-trans- 
parent scales  which,  when  of  large  dimensions  and  uni- 
formly arranged  —  as  in  the  best  qualities  of  wool  - 
reflect  light  with  a  small  amount  of  dispersion  and  im- 
part to  the  woven  material  a  lustrous  aspect.  Cotton 
has  no  such  partially  transparent  sheath.  What  light  is 
reflected  is  so  broken  up  that  the  color  is  poor.  Com- 
pare three  plain  woven  crimson  textures  made  of  silk, 
wool,  and  cotton  respectively.  The  first  literally  shines; 
luster,  brilliance,  and  richness  are  the  elements  of  its 
coloring.  Though  bright,  it  lacks  that  fulness  and 
depth  of  color  which  belongs  to  the  wool  product, 
whose  millions  of  filaments,  closely  compounded,  all 
tinted  alike,  possess  a  peculiar  bloom  and  weight  of 
color  not  to  be  found  either  in  the  silk  or  cotton  article. 
Lastly,  take  the  crimson  calico.  How  deficient  in 
warmth  and  richness  it  seems  to  be,  after  examining 
the  woolen  and  silk  texture!  It  is  dull  and  has  a  raw 
and  deficient  character. 


DYEING   AND   FINISHING  79 

The  various  methods  of  employing  fancy  shades  in 
patterns  obtained  in  the  loom  may  be  briefly  sum- 
marized : 

I.  In  mixture  cloths,  for  suitings,  coatings,  etc. 

a.  By    combining     or    blending    various     colors    of 

materials. 

b.  By  combining  several  classes  of  twist  threads. 

II.  In  plain,  twilled,  mat,  and  fancy  weave  designs 
for  trouserings,  coatings,  suitings,  jackets,  dresses,  cos- 
tumes, flannels,  shirtings,  etc. 

a.  By    introducing    colors    into    the    warp,    forming 

stripes. 
6.  By  introducing  colors  into  the  filling,  producing 

spotted  patterns. 

c.  By  introducing  colors  into  both  warp  and  filling, 

giving  checks,  broken  styles,  etc. 

III.  In  figured  designs  for  dresses,  vestings,  etc. 

a.  By  using  one  or  several  series  of  extra  warp  yarn. 

6.  By  using  one  or  several  series  of  extra  filling. 

Dress  goods  fall  naturally  into  two  distinct  classes 
when  regarded  from  the  standpoint  of  fashion  —  staples 
and  fancies.  Staples  are  those  fabrics  which  are  made 
of  the  same  construction  year  in  and  year  out.  They 
vary  only  in  coloring  to  meet  the  changes  of  fashion. 

The  Staples  are: 

Brillian  tines,  Cheviots,  Voile, 

Sicilians,  Panamas,  Nun's  Veiling, 

Mohairs,  Batistes,  Cashmere, 

Imperial  Serges,  Taffetas,  Shepherd  Checks, 

Storm  Serge, 


80  TEXTILES 

The  Fancies  are: 

Produced  through  Hopsacking,  etc. 

Variation  of  weave,  Coloring  includes: 

Variation  of  color,  Stripes, 

Variation  of  color  and  Checks, 

weave :  Plaids, 

Brocades,  Malenges, 

Cuspettes,  Mixtures. 

Meliores, 

Prior  to  the  factory  era  our  fathers  and  mothers 
made  homespun  clothes  and  wore  them  till  they  had 
passed  their  period  of  usefulness.  The  average  con- 
sumption of  wool  at  that  time  averaged  not  more  than 
three  pounds  per  capita.  As  wealth  increased  the 
home  loom  and  spinning-wheel  were  slowly  supplanted 
by  the  mill  and  factory.  The  different  textile  manu- 
facturers at  length  found  that  competition  was  so  keen 
that  it  was  necessary  to  adulterate,  particularly  any 
fabric  that  was  popular.  The  classes  of  goods  that  are 
most  adulterated  are  the  expensive  fabrics,  those  of 
wool  and  silk.  There  are  such  changes  of  fashion  in 
dress  at  the  present  day  that  garments  composed  of 
materials  formerly  considered  good  enough  are  often 
thrown  aside  as  old-fashioned  when  only  half  worn. 
Manufacturers  cater  to  the  whims  and  fancies  of  people 
and  import  to  this  country  foreign  styles.  The  rapidly 
changing  styles  cause  people  to  throw  upon  the  market 
a  great  amount  of  cast-off  clothing  only  partially  worn. 
The  result  is  that  there  is  not  wool  enough  to  pro- 
vide the  public  with  clothing  made  of  new  wool.  The 


82  TEXTILES 

requirement  per  capita  has  risen  to  six  pounds.  The 
immense  amount  of  fiber  in  cast-off  clothing  does  not 
find  its  way  into  the  paper  mills,  but  rather  into  the 
shoddy  mill,  where  it  is  remanufactured  into  cloth  again, 
or  where  part  of  the  fiber  is  mixed  with  good  wool  to 
make  "pure  wool"  cloth.  In  other  words,  the  rapidly 
changing  styles  of  to-day  and  the  limited  supply  of 
wool  are  responsible  for  the  wholesale  adulteration 
which  is  being  practised  in  modern  cloth  manufacture. 
This  adulteration  furthermore  is  becoming  more  and 
more  difficult  to  detect  by  reason  of  the  rapid  improve- 
ments made  in  the  finishing  processes  of  cloth  manufac- 
ture. Hence  the  necessity  for  people  to  know  how  and 
why  adulteration  occurs,  how  it  affects  prices,  and  what 
are  the  means  of  detecting  it.  Shoddy  is  considered  a 
legitimate  adulteration  in  woolen  and  worsted  goods. 
The  following  adulterations  are  not  legitimate  unless 
sold  as  such: 

1.  Cotton  combed  with  wool. 

2.  Thin  cotton  threads  twisted  in  with  worsted  dur- 
ing the  process  of  drawing. 

3.  Cotton  threads  of  the  same  color  as  the  wool  or 
worsted  used  as  filling  or  warp. 

4.  Cotton  veneered  with  wool. 

5.  Cotton  threads  of  the  same  color  as  wool  used  in 
weaving. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS1 

Albatross.  A  dress  fabric  of  worsted  warp  and 
worsted  filling;  of  open  texture  and  fancy  weaves. 

Alpaca.  A  thin  fabric  of  close  texture  made  from 
the  fibers  of  an  animal  of  the  llama  species;  mixed  with 
silk  or  with  cotton.  It  is  usually  woven  with  cotton 
warp  and  mohair  filling.  Imitations  of  all  cotton  are 
manufactured  and  sold  under  this  name. 

Corded  Alpaca.  Corded  weave,  lengthwise  of  the 
piece,  cotton  warp  alpaca  filling;  one  of  the  first 
products  of  the  American  loom. 

Angora.  The  fiber  of  this  goat  is  commercially 
known  as  mohair.  The  skins  are  largely  used  in  the 
making  of  children's  muffs,  for  the  scalps  of  dolls,  and 
for  trimming  coats  and  capes.  Carriage  robes  also 
claim  a  good  share  of  the  skins;  the  hair,  being  nearly 
one  foot  in  length,  makes  them  beautiful  and  service- 
able. The  fiber  enters  largely  into  that  class  of  goods 
known  as  Astrakhan,  Crepons,  Plushes,  Brilliantines, 
Zibelines,  fine  Cashmeres,  and  many  other  fabrics 
usually  sold  as  all  wool  or  worsted,  according  to  the 

1  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS.  In  connection  with  the  study  of 
fabrics  the  author  has  found  it  advisable  to  have  the  pupils  insert  in 
a  blank  book  a  sample  of  the  fabric  they  are  studying.  In  this  way 
the  pupil  can  examine  both  the  filling  (weft)  and  warp  threads. 

83 


84  TEXTILES 

mode  of  preparing  the  stock  before  spinning  into  yarn. 
It  is  found  in  the  finest  of  silk  and  worsted  fabrics  for 
ladies'  wear,  also  in  linings,  mittens,  and  fine  cloaking 
and  overcoating.  It  is  noted  especially  for  its  water 
repelling  qualities,  its  beauty,  and  high  luster;  and  not 
so  much  for  its  warmth-retaining  properties,  for  which 
wool  stands  unequalled. 

Astrakhan.  A  fabric  manufactured  from  Astrakhan 
fiber;  of  a  curly,  wavy  surface  applied  to  a  curly  faced 
cloth  resembling  Astrakhan  fleece. 

Bandanna.  From  the  Indian  bandanna,  to  bind  or 
tie.  In  dyeing,  the  cloth  is  tied  in  knots  when  dipped, 
and  thus  has  a  clouded  effect. 

Beavers.  A  heavy  cloth  manufactured  of  fine 
wool,  with  a  finish  on  the  surface  to  resemble  the  fur  of 
the  animal  by  that  name. 

Fur  Beaver.  Similar  in  many  respects  to  Beaver, 
but  having  on  its  surface  a  long,  dense  nap,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  fur  of  the  Beaver.  Used  for  overcoats, 
cloaks,  and  capes. 

Bedford  Cord.  A  fine  woolen  fabric,  with  fine  re- 
cesses running  with  the  piece,  and  extensively  used  for 
ladies'  dress  goods.  An  all  wool  cloth  of  close  tex- 
ture for  gentlemen's  clothing.  The  recesses  may  also  be 
made  with  fine  cotton  yarn  hidden  in  the  wool  filling. 

Beige.  Cloth  of  undyed  or  natural  wool.  The  name 
is  the  French  word  for  "  natural." 

Bindings.  A  species  of  narrow  fabric  of  silk, 
worsted  or  cotton,  for  binding  the  edges  of  garments, 
the  bottom  of  dress  skirts,  etc. 


WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  85 

Bombazine.  A  twilled  fabric  of  which  the  warp 
is  silk  and  the  filling  is  worsted. 

Bottany.  A  term  applied  to  worsted  yarns  made  from 
bottany  wool.  It  is  considered  the  finest  of  all  worsted 
yarns,  and  is  used  for  fine  fabrics  of  close  texture. 

Boucle.  Curled  hair  or  wool  woven  in  any  cloth  in 
such  a  way  as  to  show  the  curl  makes  boucle.  The  word 
is  French  for  curl. 

Broadcloth.  Broadcloth  is  a  soft,  closely  woven 
material  with  a  satin  finish.  The  best  qualities  are 
called  satin  broadcloth. 

The  origin  of  broadcloth  dates  back  to  early  times, 
the  first  historical  mention  of  it  being  made  in  1641. 
In  America,  among  the  first  products  manufactured 
by  the  colonial  woolen  mills  were  black  and  colored 
broadcloths,  and  these  (with  satinets)  formed  the  dis- 
tinctive character  of  American  woolen  fabrics  at  that 
time.  They  were  honestly  made  of  pure,  fine-fibered 
Saxony  wool,  and  sold  as  high  as  $6.50  per  yard. 

The  warp  and  filling  are  made  of  carded  wool  so  that 
the  web  (cloth)  will  shrink  or  full  evenly.  The  stock  is 
generally  dyed  in  the  raw  state  when  used  for  men's 
wear.  When  taken  from  the  loom  it  does  not  have  the 
smooth,  lustrous  appearance  which  is  its  distinctive 
feature.  It  is  rough  and  dull  colored,  with  the  threads 
showing  plainly.  To  improve  its  appearance  it  is  first 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  fulling  mill,  with  the  result 
that  the  fibers  of  the  warp  and  weft  become  entangled 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  cloth  never  unravels.  Then 
the  cloth  is  slightly  napped  and  sheared  down  close, 


86  TEXTILES 

in  order  to  produce  a  smooth,  even  surface.  Next  it 
is  successively  wetted,  steamed,  calendered,  and  hot 
pressed  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  out  the  luster.  It  is 
commonly  twill  woven,  but  is  sometimes  plain,  finished 
with  a  slightly  napped  and  lustrous  face.  It  must 
have  a  bright,  beaver  finish,  and  be  close  and  felty  in 
the  weave. 

The  broadcloth  used  for  women's  clothing  is  of  a 
lighter  weight  and  is  generally  piece  dyed.  It  is  used 
for  ladies'  suits,  coats,  and  gentlemen's  evening  dress 
suits,  frock  coats,  and  tuxedos.  It  is  expensive;  prices 
range  from  $1.75  to  $3.50  per  yard  in  ladies'  broadcloth, 
and  higher  for  men.  The  price  depends  on  the  quality 
of  wool  used,  and  uniformity  of  the  nap  and  perfection 
of  the  finish. 

Bunting.  A  plain  even  thread  weave  of  mohair, 
wool,  or  worsted,  used  mostly  for  making  flags.  The 
name  is  from  German,  bunt,  meaning  variegated  or  gay 
colored. 

Caniche.  A  name  given  to  curled  wool  fabric  show- 
ing the  effect  of  the  coat  of  the  caniche,  a  French  dog. 

Cashmere.  A  cloth  made  from  the  hair  of  the  Cash- 
mere goat.  The  face  of  the  fabric  is  twilled,  the  twills 
being  uneven  and  irregular  because  of  the  unevenness 
of  the  yarn.  Cashmere  yarn  was  first  hand  spun.  The 
goats  are  grown  for  their  wool  in  the  vale  of  Cashmere 
in  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 

All  Wool  Cashmere.  As  no  material  by  this  name 
exists  there  can  be  no  definition.  When  the  term  is 
used  in  defining  a  fabric,  it  is  a  delusion  and  a  snare. 


WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  87 

Cashmere  Double.  A  cloth  having  Cashmere  twill 
on  one  side  or  face  and  poplin  cord  on  the  reverse. 

Cassimere.  The  name  is  a  variation  of  Cashmere. 
Cassimere,  when  properly  made,  is  of  Cashmere  wool. 
Usually  a  twill  weave. 

Castor.     Same  as  beaver,  of  a  light  weight. 

Challis.  (Also  spelled  challie.)  A  name  given  to  a 
superior  dress  fabric  of  silk  and  wool  first  manufactured 
at  Norwich,  England,  in  1832.  In  texture  the  original 
material  was  soft,  thin,  fine,  and  finished  without  gloss. 
When  first  introduced  it  ranked  among  the  best  and  most 
elegant  silk  and  wool  textures  manufactured.  It  was 
composed  of  fine  materials,  and  instead  of  giving  it  a 
glossy  surface,  such  as  is  usually  produced  from  silk 
and  fine  wool,  the  object  was  to  make  it  without  luster. 
The  name  is  now  applied  to  an  extremely  light  weight 
summer  dress  fabric,  composed  of  either  cotton  or  wool, 
or  a  mixture  of  these  fabrics.  In  structure  it  is  both 
plain  woven  and  figured,  the  ornamental  patterns  being 
produced  either  in  the  loom  or  yarn,  dyed  or  printed. 
It  is  not  sized.  All  wool  challis  does  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  old-fashioned  muslin  delaine.  Most 
challis  patterns  are  copied  from  the  French  silks,  and 
this  accounts  in  part  for  their  tasteful  designs  and  artis- 
tic effects.  French  challis  is  a  material  similar  to  the 
above,  though  usually  characterized  by  a  more  glossy 
finish. 

Cheviot.  A  descriptive  term  of  somewhat  loose 
application,  being  used  indiscriminately  of  late  years 
to  denote  almost  any  sort  of  stout  woolen  cloth  finished 


88  TEXTILES 

with  a  rough  and  shaggy  surface.  Originally  the  fabric 
known  as  cheviot  was  woven  in  England,  from  the  strong, 
coarse  wool  of  the  Cheviot  sheep,  whence  the  name. 

It  is  at  present  a  worsted  or  woolen  fabric  made  of 
cheviot  or  "  pulled  wool,"  slightly  felted,  with  a  short 
even  nap  on  the  surface  and  a  supple  feel.  Worsted 
cheviots,  in  plain  colorings  or  of  fancy  effects,  are  manu- 
factured from  combed  yarn.  Woolen  cheviots  are  made 
from  carded  yarn.  The  greater  portion  of  this  class  of 
goods  in  carded  yarns  contains  little  or  no  new  wool 
in  its  make-up.  Shoddy,  mungo,  and  a  liberal  mixture 
of  cotton  to  hold  it  together,  blended  in  the  many  color- 
ings, help  to  cover  the  deception.  Prices  range  from 
50  cents  to  $3.00.  The  material  is  plain  or  twill  woven, 
and  has  many  of  the  qualities  of  serge. 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  cheviot,  whatever  the 
grade  of  cloth,  is  the  finish,  of  which  there  are  two 
kinds.  One  is  known  as  the  "  rough  "  finish,  and  the 
other  as  the  "  close  "  finish.  Real  cheviot  is  a  rough- 
finished  fabric,  composed  of  a  strong,  coarse  wool  and 
fulled  to  a  considerable  degree.  The  process  of  finishing 
cheviot  is  simple,  and  practically  the  same  methods  are 
followed  for  both  the  "  rough  "  and  the  "  close  "  styles. 
On  leaving  the  loom  the  cloth  is  first  washed  in  soap  and 
water  to  remove  any  dirt  or  other  foreign  matter  it 
may  contain.  It  is  then  fulled,  which  consists  in  shrink- 
ing the  cloth  both  in  length  and  breadth,  thus  rendering 
the  texture  heavier  and  denser.  Next  it  is  "  gigged  " 
or  napped.  This  is  accomplished  by  passing  the  face  of 
the  matted  cloth  against  a  cylinder  covered  with  sharp 


WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  89 

pointed  teasels  which  draw  out  the  fibers  from  the 
yarn.  This  operation  is  continued  until  a  nap  more  or 
less  dense  is  raised  over  the  entire  surface. 

From  the  gig  the  cloth  is  taken  to  the  shearing  ma- 
chine, the  revolving  blades  of  which  cut  the  long,  irregu- 
lar nap  down  to  a  uniform  level.  Sometimes  the  style 
of  finish  called  for  is  that  approaching  a  threadbare 
cassimere,  and  in  this  case  great  care  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  blades  from  cutting  the  yarn.  In  the 
rough  finish  the  nap,  although  sparingly  raised,  is  com- 
paratively long.  Having  been  napped  and  sheared, 
the  cloth  is  pressed  and  carefully  examined  for  defects, 
then  brushed,  pressed,  and  highly  steamed.  When 
measured,  rolled,  and  steamed,  it  is  ready  for  market, 
and  is  used  mostly  for  ladies'  and  gentlemen's  suitings. 
The  pattern  and  design  are  light  stripes  and  checks  of 
small  dimensions.  Cheviot  is  a  name  given  to  many 
materials  used  for  suiting. 

Chinchilla.  Heavy  coating  with  rough  wavy  face. 
The  name  is  Spanish  for  a  fur-bearing  animal  of  the 
mink  species. 

Chudah.  Applied  to  billiard  cloth;  relates  to  color. 
Chudah  is  the  Hindoo  name  of  a  bright  green  cloth. 

Corduroy.  Heavy  corded  cotton  material  used  for 
servants'  livery.  The  name  is  from  the  French  Corde 
du  Roi  —  king's  cords. 

Cote  Cheval.  In  France  corded  cloth  for  riding 
costumes,  such  as  Bedford  cord,  is  called  cote  cheval, 
the  application  being  through  cheval,  horse;  cote, 
ribbed  or  lined. 


90  TEXTILES 

Coupure.  Coupure  is  French  for  cut  through. 
Coupure  or  cut  cashmere  is  a  cashmere  weave  show- 
ing lines  cut  through  the  twills  lengthwise  of  the 
piece. 

Covert.  Heavy  twilled  cloth  in  natural  undyed 
shades,  used  in  England  for  men's  overcoats  worn 
while  riding  to  covert  in  fox  hunting. 

Delaine.  From  the  French  "of  wool";  applies  to 
the  most  primitive  weave  of  plain  wool  yarn.  Thirty 
years  ago  delaine  was  the  staple  dress  goods  stock. 
It  was  made  in  solid  colors. 

Diagonal  Cheviot.  Same  as  cheviot,  only  in  the 
weaving  the  pattern  is  marked  by  zigzag  lines  or 
stripes. 

Doeskin.  Of  the  broadcloth  range,  made  with  shiny 
napped  face,  soft  finish,  as  the  pelt  of  a  doe. 

Drap  d'Ete.  A  heavy  cashmere  or  double  warp 
merino,  with  the  back  teasled  or  scratched,  used  mostly 
for  clergymen's  clothing  and  in  lighter  weights  for 
women's  dresses.  The  name  is  French  for  "  cloth  of 


summer." 


Empress  Cloth.  Similar  to  poplin;  made  of  hard 
twisted  worsted  filling  and  cotton  warp.  Was  made 
a  success  in  the  early  seventies  of  the  last  century  by 
the  Empress  Eugenie  of  France.  Empress  cloth  was 
a  staple  in  all  well-regulated  dress  goods  lines. 

Epingline.  A  fine  corded  fabric  of  wool  or  silk, 
showing  the  cords  woven  close  together  and  appearing 
as  if  lined  with  a  pin  point.  This  application  is  from 
epingle,  French  for  pin. 


WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  91 

Etamine.  French  name  for  bolting  or  sifting  cloth, 
made  of  silk  for  sifting  flour;  applied  to  mesh  or  net 
weaves  in  America. 

Felt.  Fabric  made  by  rolling  or  pressing  a  pulpy  mass 
or  mixture  of  wool  into  a  flat  mat.  The  name  is  from 
the  process.  To  felt  is  to  mix  and  press  into  shape. 

Flannel.  Wales  appears  to  have  been  the  original 
home  of  flannel,  and  history  informs  us  that  this  was 
the  only  textile  produced  in  that  country  for  hundreds 
of  years.  It  is  constructed  either  of  cotton  or  wool, 
or  of  an  intermixture  of  these  fibers,  and  is  a  coarse- 
threaded,  loosely  woven,  light-weight  fabric,  more  or 
less  spongy  and  elastic,  with  an  unfinished,  lusterless 
surface.  Generally  speaking  all  grades  of  plain  colored 
flannel  are  piece  dyed,  the  soft  open  texture  of  the  goods 
permitting  the  fibers  to  absorb  the  dye  as  readily  in  the 
web  as  in  the  yarn.  Flannels  are  subjected  to  several 
finishing  operations,  such  as  fulling,  teaseling,  pressing, 
and  stretching.  Flannels  do  not  require  a  great  deal 
of  fulling.  All  that  is  necessary  is  enough  to  give  a 
degree  of  stability  and  body  to  the  goods. 

Dress  Flannel.  All  wool  fabric  used  chiefly  for 
women's  winter  dresses;  also  called  flannel  suiting. 
It  has  a  diversity  of  qualities,  colors,  and  styles  of 
finish.  It  is  commonly  put  up  in  double  fold,  width 
from  twenty-six  to  fifty  inches. 

French  Flannel.  A  fine,  soft  twill,  woven  variety 
dyed  in  solid  shades,  and  also  printed  with  patterns 
after  the  manner  of  calico;  used  for  morning  gowns, 
dressing  sacques,  waists,  etc. 


92  TEXTILES 

Shaker  Flannel.  A  variety  of  white  flannel  finished 
with  considerable  nap,  composed  of  cotton  warp  and 
woolen  weft. 

Indigo  Blue.  A  superior  all  wool  grade  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  men's  suits  and  particularly  for  the 
uniform  of  members  of  the  G.  A.  R. 

Mackinaw.  The  name  applied  to  an  extra  heavy 
blanket-like  material  used  in  cold  climates  by  miners 
and  lumbermen  for  shirts  and  underwear. 

Navy  Twilled  Flannel.  A  heavy  all  wool  variety  com- 
monly dyed  indigo  blue,  commonly  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  overshirts  for  out-door  laborers,  firemen,  sailors, 
and  miners. 

Silk  Warp  Flannel.  A  high  grade,  pure  variety  of 
flannel  woven  with  a  silk  warp  and  a  fine  woolen  weft. 
It  is  a  very  soft,  light-weight,  loosely  woven  flannel  and 
runs  only  in  narrow  widths,  twenty-seven  inches.  If 
the  finishing  process  is  carried  beyond  fulling  the 
texture  is  rendered  hard  and  firm,  the  cloth  thus  losing 
its  softness  and  elasticity.  In  the  teaseling  process  it 
is  necessary  for  the  nap  to  be  raised  only  slightly,  and 
this  is  commonly  done  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  or 
twist  of  the  warp.  The  perfection  of  a  flannel  finish 
lies  not  in  the  smooth  appearance  of  the  cloth,  but  in 
its  full,  rich  softness.  Sometimes  the  nap  is  sheared, 
but  more  often  it  is  pressed  down  flat  upon  the  face  of 
the  cloth.  After  a  thorough  drying,  and  careful  ex- 
amination for  defects,  the  goods  are  rolled  on  boards, 
and  are  ready  for  market.  It  is  used  for  infants'  wear 
and  shawls,  for  undergarments,  bed  coverings,  and  also 


WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  93 

to   some    extent    for  outer    garments  in  weights    and 
styles  adapted  for  that  purpose. 

Baby  Flannel.  A  very  light-weight  variety  woven 
of  fine,  soft  wool,  smooth  finish,  bleached  pure  white. 

Florentine.  A  heavy  twilled  mohair  fabric  for  men's 
wear  which  is  sold  largely  to  Italy  and  Spain.  The 
name  is  from  Florence,  Italy. 

Foule.  A  twilled,  unsheared  cloth;  that  is,  the  face 
appears  to  be  unsinged,  and  shows  the  woolly  roughness 
in  a  slight  degree.  The  cloth  when  woven  in  the  gray 
is  fulled  or  shrunken  in  width  by  soaking  in  soapsuds 
and  passing  it  while  wet  through  holes  of  different  sizes 
in  a  steel  plate.  The  name  is  from  fouler,  French,  to 
full  or  shrink. 

Frieze.  Frieze  is  a  coarse,  heavy  cloth  with  a  curly 
surface  and  made  at  first  of  lamb's  wool.  It  is  now  made 
from  coarse  grades  of  wool.  It  is  thick  and  heavily 
napped,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  warm  outer 
garments,  particularly  for  men's  wear.  It  was  named 
after  the  people  of  Friesland  in  Holland  in  the  13th 
century,  and  is  famous  to-day  as  an  Irish  fabric.  Irish 
frieze  has  extraordinary  durability,  and  the  fibers  are 
the  longest  and  strongest  made.  The  weave  is  plain, 
small  twill,  or  herring  bone.  When  not  of  a  solid  color 
it  is  usually  a  mixture,  the  colors  being  mixed  in  the 
raw  state.  The  wool  is  dyed  in, the  raw  state  in  mass, 
then  doubled  after  spinning. 

Gloria.  Plain  weave  of  silk  and  wool,  and  silk  and 
cotton ;  first  made  for  umbrella  covering.  Name  means 
bright. 


94  TEXTILES 

Granada.  Popular  weave  of  mohair,  made  in  coat- 
ing weight  for  Spanish  trade.  Granada  is  a  city  in 
Spain. 

Grenadine.  Originally  a  plain,  openwork,  net-like 
fabric  of  silk,  mohair,  cotton,  or  wool.  We  have  grena- 
dines in  Jacquards  and  in  set  patterns.  The  name  is  an 
adaptation  of  Granada. 

Henrietta  Cloth.  A  twilled  cashmere  of  light  weight 
and  high  finish,  originally  made  with  silk  warp  and  wool 
filling  in  Yorkshire,  England.  The  name  was  given  in 
honor  of  Henrietta  Maria  of  England,  Queen  of  Charles 
I.  The  silk  warp,  hand-woven  fabric  was  first  produced 
about  the  year  1660. 

Homespun.  A  rough,  loosely  woven  material  made 
from  coarse  yarn.  It  is  soft  but  rather  clumsy.  A 
general  term  used  to  designate  cloth  spun  or  wrought 
at  home.  The  homespun  of  the  present  day  is  a  woolen 
fabric  in  imitation  of  those  fabrics  made  by  hand  before 
the  introduction  of  textile  machinery.  It  is  made  of 
a  coarse,  rough,  and  uneven  thread;  usually  of  plain 
weave  and  no  felting.  It  was  woven  by  the  early  settlers 
of  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States.  It  is  now  used  as 
woolen  suiting  for  men's  wear  and  in  various  kinds  of 
coarse,  spongy,  shaggy  cloth  for  women's  gowns. 

Hop  Sacking.  A  coarse  bagging  made  commonly 
of  a  combination  of  hemp  and  jute,  used  for  holding 
hops  during  transportation.  The  name  hop  sacking  is 
also  applied  to  a  variety  of  woolen  dress  goods  made 
from  different  classes  of  yarn.  It  is  made  of  carded 
woolen  fabric  of  the  plainest  kind.  The  cloth  is  charac- 


WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  95 

terized  by  an  open  weave,  and  a  square  check-like 
mesh,  the  structure  being  designed  to  imitate  that  of 
the  coarse  jute  bagging.  It  has  very  little  finish,  is 
usually  dyed  in  solid  colors,  and  is  used  for  women's 
and  children's  dresses. 

Jeans.  Cotton  or  woolen  coarse  twilled  fabric.  In 
cotton  used  for  linings,  in  wool  for  men's  cheap  cloth- 
ing. The  name  is  from  a  Genoese  coin,  relating  to  the 
price  of  the  cloth;  so  much  for  one  jean. 

Kersey.  A  very  heavy,  felted,  satin  finish  woolen 
cloth  made  with  the  cotton  weave  or  cross  twill  for 
face,  and  cotton  weave  or  four  harness  satin  for  back. 
It  was  originally  made  with  fine  Merino  lamb's  wool  for 
face,  and  somewhat  coarser  grade  for  back.  The  cheaper 
grades  are  manufactured  from  a  fine-fibered  wool  and 
shoddy,  with  low  grades  of  shoddy  and  mungo  for 
back.  It  is  named  from  an  English  town,  Kersey,  where 
from  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  century  a  large  woolen 
trade  was  carried  on.  The  Kersey  of  early  history  was  a 
coarse  cloth,  known  under  different  names,  and  before 
knitting  was  used  for  stockings.  In  the  construction  of 
Kersey  the  cloth  is  woven  a  few  inches  wider  in  the  loom 
(and  correspondingly  longer)  than  it  is  to  appear  in  the 
finished  state.  This  is  done  in  order  that  the  meshes 
may  be  closed  up  in  the  fulling  mill  to  insure  a  covering 
of  threads.  Previous  to  fulling,  however,  the  face  of  the 
cloth  is  gigged  to  produce  a  good  covering  for  the  threads 
by  forming  a  light  nap,  which  is  fitted  in.  In  the  fulling 
operation,  which  comes  next,  the  cloth  is  shrunk  to  its 
proper  width  and  density,  usually  to  a  degree  rendering 


96  TEXTILES 

it  difficult  to  see  the  individual  warp  and  filling  threads, 
so  closely  are  they  matted  together.  Fulling  is  followed 
by  gigging,  and  in  this  process  a  nap  more  or  less  heavy 
is  raised  on  the  face  of  the  goods  by  means  of  teasels. 
The  cloth  is  run  through  the  gig  several  times  and  then 
sheared  in  order  to  render  the  fibers  forming  the  nap 
short,  even,  and  of  uniform  length.  Great  care  is  exer- 
cised in  the  shearing,  as  the  nap  must  be  cropped  quite 
close  and  yet  not  expose  the  threads  or  cut  the  face. 
The  next  operation  is  scouring  or  steaming,  in  which 
live  steam  is  forced  through  every  part  of  the  goods  for 
the  purpose  of  developing  the  natural  luster  of  the  wool. 
In  case  the  goods  are  to  be  piece  dyed,  the  dyeing  fol- 
lows scouring.  After  steaming,  the  cloth  is  thoroughly 
matted  and  gigged  again,  care  being  taken  to  avoid 
stirring  up  the  ground  nap.  It  is  then  dried  and  the  nap 
briskly  brushed  in  a  steam  brusher  and  laid  evenly  in 
one  direction.  Again  the  cloth  is  slightly  steamed  and 
primed,  face  up.  The  result  of  this  treatment  is  the 
production  of  a  texture  firm,  yet  pliable,  with  a  highly 
lustrous  face  and  one  not  liable  to  wear  rough  or  thread- 
bare. Kersey  is  used  for  overcoats. 

Kerseymere.  Light  weight  twilled  worsted;  same 
derivative  of  name  as  Kersey. 

Linsey  Woolsey.  Coarse  cloth  of  linen  and  wool 
used  as  skirtings  by  the  British  peasantry.  The  name 
is  from  the  components  of  the  cloth. 

Melrose.  Double  twilled  silk  and  wool  fabric;  named 
for  Melrose,  a  town  on  the  Tweed,  in  Scotland. 

Melton.     A  thick,   heavy  woolen  fabric  with  short 


WOOLEN  AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  97 

nap,  feeling  somewhat  rough.  Meltons  are  made  firm 
in  the  loom.  The  weaves  for  single  cloth  meltons  are 
usually  plain,  and  three  or  four  harness  twill.  For 
double  cloths  the  plain  weave  is  used,  or  a  weave  with 
a  plain  face  and  a  one-third  weave  on  the  back.  All 
trace  of  the  weave  is  destroyed  in  the  finishing.  The 
colors  usually  black  or  dark  blue. 

Meltonette.  A  cloth  of  the  same  general  appearance 
as  melton,  of  light  weight,  for  women's  wear. 

Merino.  A  fabric  woven  of  the  wool  of  the  Merino 
sheep,  twilled  on  both  sides,  the  twill  being  uneven. 
Merino  resembles  cashmere. 

Mohair  Brilliantine.  A  dress  fabric  resembling  alpaca, 
of  superior  quality,  and  sometimes  finished  on  both 
sides.  The  name  is  from  the  Arabic  mukayyan,  cloth 
of  goat's  hair.  It  is  made  from  the  long,  silky  hair  of 
the  Angora  goat  of  Asia  Minor,  a  species  which  is  being 
introduced  into  the  United  States.  The  fabric  has  a 
hard,  wiry  feel,  and  if  made  from  the  pure  material  has 
a  high  luster.  It  has  cotton  warp  and  luster  worsted 
filling.  The  weave  is  plain"  ground,  or  with  a  small 
Jacquard  figure,  and  when  a  very  lustrous  fabric  is 
wanted,  the  warp  yarn  is  of  finer  counts  than  the  filling 
yarn.  The  warp  and  filling  yarns  are  dyed  previous  to 
weaving.  They  may  be  of  the  same  color  or  different 
colors.  The  contrast  of  colors  in  connection  with  the 
weave  gives  the  fabric  a  pretty  effect.  Fabrics  made 
with  dyed  yarns  are  usually  given  a  dry  finish,  that  is, 
simply  run  through  the  press  and  cylinder  heated,  after 
which  they  are  rolled  and  then  packed.  Those  made 


98  TEXTILES 

with  undyed  filling  are  first  scoured,  then  dyed,  after 
which  they  are  run  through  a  rotary  press  with  fifty 
or  sixty  pounds  of  steam  heat.  Mohair  brilliantine  is 
used  for  dress  goods. 

Montagnac  is  heavy  overcoating.  The  French 
montagne,  for  mountain,  is  the  origin  of  the  name,  being 
for  mountain  wear. 

Orleans.  Cloth  of  cotton  warp  and  bright  wool 
fulling,  made  in  Orleans,  France.  Many  of  the  so- 
called  alpacas  and  mohairs  of  to-day  are  Orleans.  These 
fabrics  are  mostly  cross-dyed,  that  is,  fabrics  with  warp 
and  filling  of  different  shades.  After  weaving  they  are 
cross-dyed  or  redyed  to  give  solid  colors  and  glace 
effects. 

Panama  Cloth  is  a  plain  weave  worsted  fabric  of  no 
uniform  construction  or  finish.  Fabrics  sold  under 
this  name  vary  considerably.  They  are  of  solid  colors, 
usually  piece  dyed,  and  are  used  for  suitings. 

Prunella.  From  the  French  prunelle,  which  means 
plum,  a  stout  worsted  material  named  from  its  color, 
which  is  a  purplish  shade  similar  to  that  of  a  ripe  plum. 
The  name  was  originally  applied  to  a  kind  of  lasting  of 
which  clergymen's  gowns  were  made.  It  is  now  used 
to  denote  a  variety  of  rich,  satin-faced  worsted  cloth 
employed  for  women's  dresses.  The  fibers  are  worsted. 
Prunella  is  dyed  either  in  piece  or  yarn  state  and  is 
hand  finished. 

Sacking.  Plain  solid  color  flannel  in  special  shades 
for  women's  dressing  sacks,  also  applied  to  a  fabric 
made  of  hemp  for  grain  sacks. 


WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  99 

Sanglier.  A  plain  fabric  of  wiry  worsted  or  mohair 
yarn,  closely  woven,  with  a  rough  finished  surface. 
Sanglier  is  French  for  wild  boar,  the  hairy,  wiry  cloth 
resembling  the  coat  of  the  animal. 

Sebastopol.  A  twill-faced  cloth  named  from 
Sebastopol,  the  Russian  fortified  town  captured  by  the 
English  and  French  in  1855. 

Serge.  Under  this  name  are  classed  a  large  number 
of  fabrics  of  twill  construction.  In  weight  and  texture 
a  modern  serge  resembles  flannel,  except  that  it  is  twill 
woven  and  composed  of  fine  yarn  finished  with  a  smoother 
surface.  Serge  comes  from  the  Italian  word  sergea, 
meaning  cloth  of  wool  mixed  with  silk.  Serges  are 
woven  of  worsted,  of  silk,  or  of  cotton  yarn,  and 
variously  dyed,  finished,  and  ornamented,  as  silk  serge, 
serge  suiting,  storm  serge,  mohair  serge,  etc.  Worsted 
serges  of  various  kinds  and  degrees  have  been  known 
since  the  twelfth  century.  Worsted  serge  appears  to 
have  come  into  general  use  as  a  material  for  men's  wear 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  Modern  serges  vary  but  little 
from  those  made  two  centuries  ago.  They  are  dyed  in 
a  great  variety  of  colors.  On  leaving  the  loom  the 
cloth  is  washed  and  scoured  with  soap  and  water  to 
remove  the  dirt  and  oil  (if  these  remain  the  cloth 
will  not  take  the  dye  properly).  After  dyeing,  it  is 
passed  through  a  pair  of  metal  rollers  under  pressure, 
which  renders  the  surface  more  regular  and  even  and  of 
a  better  luster.  This  process  accomplishes  more  than 
is  required,  for  it  produces  a  bloom  on  the  surface 
which  will  show  rain  specks  when  in  the  garment,  if  it 


100  TEXTILES 

is  allowed  to  remain.  This  is  ordinary  serge.  In  order 
to  make  storm  serge  it  is  necessary  to  remove  part  of  the 
bloom,  and  to  accomplish  this  the  cloth  is  steamed 
sufficiently  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  pressing.  Steam- 
ing deadens  the  bloom  and  prevents  the  effects  of  rain 
showing  on  the  cloth.  The  wearing  qualities  of  serge 
are  good,  but  it  gets  a  shine  easily.  It  is  used  for  dress 
goods  and  suitings.  Serge  suiting  used  for  men's  clothing 
is  a  variety  of  light,  wiry,  worsted  yarn  woven  with  a 
flat  twill,  and  dyed  black  or  in  shades  of  blue,  fifty-four 
inches  in  width.  Mohair  serge  is  woven  with  a  cotton 
warp  and  a  mohair  filling,  thirty-two  inches  in  width. 
This  is  dyed  in  a  variety  of  colors  and  largely  used  as 
lining  material  for  women's  clothes,  men's  coats,  and 
overcoats.  Storm  serge,  designed  to  withstand  exposure 
to  stormy  weather,  is  a  coarse  variety  of  worsted  dress 
goods  produced  in  a  wide  range  of  colors  and  qualities. 
The  twill  is  wider,  the  texture  stouter,  and  the  surface 
rougher  and  cleaner  than  that  of  ordinary  serge. 
Iridescent  serge  is  a  variety  of  worsted  dress  goods 
woven  with  warp  and  filling  of  different  colors,  causing 
a  shimmering  or  iridescent  effect.  Cravenette  serge  is  a 
fine  twilled  variety  having  a  firm,  closely  woven  texture, 
dyed  black  and  in  colors,  and  is  used  for  women's 
gowns,  men's  summer  suits,  etc.  Serge  de  Barry  is  a 
high-grade  dress  goods  of  fine  texture,  with  fine  twill, 
and  wiry  feel. 

Shoddy  is  made  from  old  woolen  stockings  or  rags, 
shredded  or  picked  by  hand  or  machine,  to  render  the 
yarn  suitable  for  spinning  a  second  time,  or  to  give  a 


WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  101 

fiber  that  can  be  woven  or  felted  with  a  wool  or  cotton 
warp.  The  name  has  come  to  mean  cheap,  make- 
believe. 

Sicilian.  Heavy  weight  cotton  warp,  mohair  filled 
cloth.  Sicilienne,  the  proper  name,  was  made  in  the 
Island  of  Sicily  as  a  heavy  ribbed,  all  silk  fabric. 

Sultane.  Twilled  cloth  of  silk  and  wool;  finished  in 
the  rough,  not  singed  or  sheared.  The  name  is  from 
Sultana,  the  first  wife  of  the  Sultan. 

Tamise.  Similar  to  etamine,  with  a  very  close  mesh, 
made  first  of  silk  and  wool.  Tamis  is  French  for  sieve. 

Tartans.  Plaids  of  the  Scottish  clans  worn  by  men 
in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  as  a  diagonal  scarf,  fastened 
on  one  shoulder  and  crossing  the  body.  Each  clan  had 
a  distinctive  tartan  or  plaid.  The  name  was  adapted 
from  the  French  tiretaine,  a  thin  woolen  checked  cloth. 

Thibet.  Heavy,  coarse  weave  of  goat's  hair,  made 
by  the  Thibetans  in  Asia  for  men's  wear. 

Tricot.  A  heavy,  compound  fabric  characterized  by 
a  line  effect  running  warp  way  or  filling  way  of  the 
piece,  usually  produced  with  either  woolen  or  worsted 
yarn.  Tricot  was  originally  a  name  given  to  fabrics 
made  of  woolen  yarn  or  thread  by  hand  knitting,  and  is 
the  French  word  meaning  knitting.  The  term  was  later 
applied  to  materials  made  on  a  knitting  frame  and  now 
known  as  jersey  cloth.  Since  1840  the  name  tricot  has 
been  applied  to  finely  woven  woolen  cloth,  the  weave  of 
which  is  intended  to  imitate  the  face  effect  of  a  knitted 
fabric.  The  fabric  is  composed  of  woolen  and  worsted 
fibers,  sometimes  with  cotton  warp  woven  so  as  to  hide 


102  TEXTILES 

the  cotton  in  finishing.  The  tricot  line  is  similar  to  the 
rib  line  in  a  ribbed  cloth  except  that  it  is  not  so  pro- 
nounced. All  tricots  are  constructed  with  two  sets  of 
warp  thread  and  are  characterized  by  a  texture  which, 
while  dense,  is  singularly  elastic,  in  this  respect  being 
somewhat  similar  to  heavy  jersey  cloth.  Tricots  are 
commonly  dyed  in  plain  colors,  and  are  finished  clear  so 
as  to  show  the  filling.  When  intended  for  trousers  they 
are  ornamented  with  small,  neat  patterns. 

Tweed.  A  rough  unfinished  fabric  of  soft,  open,  and 
flexible  texture,  of  wool  or  cotton  and  wool,  usually  of 
yarn  of  two  or  more  shades;  originally  the  product  of 
the  weavers  on  the  bank  of  the  river  Tweed  in  Scotland. 
The  face  of  the  cloth  presents  an  unfinished  appear- 
ance rather  than  a  sharp  and  clearly  defined  pattern. 

Veiling  includes  light  weight,  usually  plain  weave 
fabrics  of  various  constructions;  generally  made  with 
singed  or  polished  yarns.  They  are  in  solid  colors. 
The  use  is  designated  by  the  name. 

Venetian.  Venetian  cloth  has  a  worsted  or  cotton 
warp  and  worsted  filling;  named  from  Venetia,  a  coun- 
try around  Venice.  The  warp  yarns  are  firmly  twisted, 
the  twist  being  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  twist  in 
the  filling  yarn.  Venetian  is  a  trade  term  of  wide  appli- 
cation, in  use  since  early  times  as  a  descriptive  title  for 
various  fabrics,  textures,  and  garments.  One  of  the  many 
varieties  is  a  species  of  twill  weaving  in  which  the  lines 
or  twills  are  of  a  rounded  form  and  arranged  in  a  more 
or  less  upright  position,  hence  a  closely  woven  worsted 
cloth.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  other  fabrics,  as  a 


WOOLEN   AND   WORSTED   FABRICS  103 

twilled  lining  fabric  woven  with  a  cotton  warp  and  a 
worsted  filling  known  as  Italian  cloth.  It  is  dyed  in 
plain  colors  and  is  piece  or  yarn  dyed  for  men.  For 
women's  wear  it  has  light  weight  and  plain  colors  with 
mixed  effects  and  closely  sheared  nap.  It  is  finished 
smooth  so  as  to  show  the  yarns  prominently.  Vene- 
tian cloth  has  not  so  much  felting  as  broadcloth;  it 
shows  the  weave  more,  but  has  the  same  lustrous  finish. 

Vigogne  or  Vicuna.  A  soft  wool  cloth  of  the  cheviot 
order,  with  teasled  face,  made  from  the  wool  of  the 
vicuna,  a  South  American  animal.  Vigogne  is  the 
French  name  for  the  animal. 

Vigour eux.  A  name  applied  to  a  plain  or  twill  mix- 
ture, woven  of  undyed  natural  wool  yarns.  The  French 
spinners  found  that  the  strongest  yarns  were  those  of 
the  undyed  wool.  Sometimes  two  or  more  shades  or 
tones  are  spun  into  one  thread.  The  name  is  French 
for  strong. 

Voiles.  Voiles  are  plain  weave  worsted  fabrics  made 
with  hard  twisted  yarns.  As  clear  a  face  as  possible 
is  secured  in  finishing,  the  cloth  being  singed  or  sheared 
closely  if  the  yarns  are  not  made  comparatively  free 
from  loose  fibers  before  being  woven.  Voiles  are  dyed 
in  solid  colors,  and  are  used  principally  for  dress  goods. 

Whipcord.  Hard  twisted  worsted  twills,  either  solid 
or  mixed  colors.  The  name  is  from  the  hard  twisted 
lash  of  a  whip. 

Worsted  Diagonals  are  characterized  by  prominent 
weave  effects  running  diagonally  across  the  cloth.  The 
goods  are  usually  of  a  solid  color,  and  are  given  a  finish 


104  TEXTILES 

which  brings  the  weave  into  prominence.  Diagonals 
are  used  for  suitings. 

Unfinished  worsted  is  a  fabric  woven  with  yarn  with 
very  little  twist  in  it,  and  finished  so  as  to  make  it 
appear  covered  with  loose  fibers,  concealing  the  twill 
effect.  After  leaving  the  loom  the  cloth  is  placed  in  a 
fulling  machine  which  condenses  the  fibers,  thus  in- 
creasing the  density.  It  is  then  passed  over  hot  presses 
after  a  slight  shearing. 

Finished  Worsted  is  woven  with  yarn  with  a  con- 
siderable twist,  and  finished  in  such  a  way  as  to  show 
the  construction  of  the  cloth  clearly.  The  finishing 
consists  simply  of  scouring  the  cloth  and  not  fulling  it 
and  then  passing  it  through  hot  water  baths  between 
heavy  rolls  to  remove  all  the  soap.  It  is  then  sheared 
and  pressed. 

Zephyr.  Light  worsted  yarn,  also  light  weight  cot- 
ton gingham.  Zephyr  is  Greek  for  the  light  west  wind. 

Zibeline.  A  cloth  manufactured  with  Merino  lamb's 
wool  for  warp,  and  a  light  wool  mixed  with  camel's 
hair  for  filling;  or,  worsted  warp  and  camel's  hair  for 
filling;  or  either  of  the  foregoing  warps  and  a  mixture 
of  wool,  camel's  hair,  and  fine  cashmere  for  filling. 
The  long  cashmere  hair  spreads  over  the  surface.  Used 
for  ladies'  tailor-made  coats  or  suits,  according  to 
weight.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
sabellum,  meaning  sable,  and  was  applied  originally  to  a 
variety  of  long-haired  fur  generally  thought  to  be  the 
same  as  sable.  Zibeline  has  long  hairs  on  its  right  side, 
some  grades  being  almost  like  fur. 


CHAPTER  IX 
COTTON 

Cotton.  Cotton  is  the  most  important  vegetable 
fiber  used  in  spinning.  The  cotton  fiber  is  a  soft, 
downy  substance  which  grows  around  the  cotton  seed. 
When  examined  under  the  microscope  it  appears  as  a 
long  twisted  cell.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  cotton- 
plant  yields  so  readily  to  the  varying  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate,  there  is  a  large  variety  of  cottons,  each 
having  some  peculiarity  which  is  considered  enough 
to  place  it  in  a  distinct  class.  An  idea  of  the  number 
of  species  of  the  cotton-plant  can  be  obtained  from  the 
fact  that  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
has  recorded  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  varieties. 
The  most  important  varieties  are :  Gossypium  herbaceum, 
G.  arboreum,  G.  hirsutum,  G.  barbadense,  and  G.  peruvia- 
num.  The  botanical  name  of  a  plant  is  divided  into 
two  parts:  first  the  family  name,  followed  by  the 
species  name. 

The  Gossypium  herbaceum  grows  from  four  to  six 
feet  in  height  and  bears  a  yellow  flower.  The  seeds  are 
covered  with  a  short  gray  down.  The  fiber  it  bears  is 
classed  as  short.  It  is  found  in  Egypt,  Asia  Minor, 
Arabia,  India,  and  China.  The  short-stapled  variety 
of  Egyptian  cotton  is  from  this  species. 

105 


106  TEXTILES 

The  G.  arboreum  when  full  grown  attains  a  height 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet.  The  seed  is  covered  with 
a  greenish  fur  and  is  enveloped  in  a  fine,  silky  down, 
yellowish  white  in  color.  It  is  found  in  Egypt,  Arabia, 
and  China. 

The  G.  hirsutum  is  a  shrubby  plant,  its  maximum 
height  being  about  six  feet.  The  young  pods  are 
hairy,  and  the  seeds  are  numerous  and  covered  with  a 
firmly  adhering  green  down.  It  is  probable  that  this 
is  the  original  of  the  green-seeded  cotton  which  is 
now  cultivated  so  extensively  in  the  Southern  States 
of  America,  and  which  forms  the  bulk  of  the  supply 
from  that  source. 

The  G.  peruvianum  is  similar  to  the  G.  barbadense. 
The  Brazilian  and  Peru  cottons  are  from  this  species. 

The  G.  barbadense  grows  from  six  to  fifteen  feet  high; 
its  flowers  are  yellow  and  its  seeds  black  and  smooth, 
being  quite  destitute  of  the  hair  that  distinguishes 
other  members  of  the  species.  It  is  a  native  of  Bar- 
badoes  or  has  been  cultivated  there  for  a  long  time. 
Cottons  of  the  finest  texture  belong  to  this  species  - 
Sea  Island  and  Florida  cottons  —  from  which  our  finest 
yarns  are  spun,  and  it  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  fine  lace.  The  long-stapled  Egyptian  and 
several  other  varieties  are  said  to  be  from  this  stock. 

Cotton  Growing  Countries.  The  most  suitable  situa- 
tion for  growing  cotton  is  between  35  degrees  north  and 
40  degrees  south  of  the  equator.  The  chief  cotton 
growing  countries  of  the  world  in  order  of  importance 
are:  United  States,  India,  Egypt,  and  Brazil.  Cotton 


COTTON  107 

is  also  grown  in  the  following  countries,  but  in  no 
quantity  or  quality  comparable  with  the  four  named 
above  —  West  Indies,  west  coast  of  Africa,  Asia  Minor, 
China,  and  Queensland. 

The  best  soil  for  growing  cotton  is  a  light  loam  or 
sandy  soil,  which  receives  and  retains  the  heat,  and  at 
the  same  time  preserves  a  good  supply  of  moisture. 
Cold,  damp  days  are  not  suitable  for  its  growth,  while 
deep  rich  soils  develop  too  much  leaf  and  stalk.  The 
best  climate  for  the  cultivation  of  cotton  is  where  frost 
and  snow  are  of  short  duration,  dews  are  heavy,  and  the 
sun  bright,  warm,  and  regular.  New  soils  generally 
produce  the  best  cotton.  The  character  of  the  cotton 
fiber  is  dependent  upon  three  things,  the  species  of  the 
plant,  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  locality  in  which 
it  is  grown. 

Rough  Peruvian.  The  nature  of  this  cotton  is  harsh 
and  wiry  and  resembles  wool  so  nearly  that  it  is  almost 
exclusively  used  to  mix  with  woolen  fabrics.  The 
staple  is  rough  and  generally  strong,  and  is  of  a  springy 
tendency,  i.e.,  it  does  not  lie  close  like  American. 

East  Indian.  India  depends  upon  the  monsoon  for 
its  moisture,  and  the  success  or  failure  of  the  crop  is 
decided  by  that  phenomenon  of  nature.  Indian  cottons 
as  a  rule  are  coarser  and  shorter  than  American  cottons. 
The  land  is  prepared  before  the  breaking  of  the  mon- 
soon, and  the  planting  begins  after  it.  There  is  not  the 
same  care  bestowed  upon  the  cultivation  of  the  Indian 
cotton,  nor  are  such  improved  methods  practised  as  in 
America.  The  ancient  routine  of  past  generations 


108  TEXTILES 

still  persists,  and  as  a  consequence  the  yield  per  acre 
is  less  than  one-half  that  of  America.  Moreover  the 
acreage  planted  is  only  about  two-thirds  that  of 
America.  The  better  growths  of  East  Indian  cotton 
were  once  largely  used  in  this  country  for  filling,  owing 
to  their  good  color  and  cleanliness;  but  of  late  years 
the  consumption  has  steadily  decreased,  owing  chiefly 
to  the  increased  takings  by  the  Indian  mills,  also  to 
the  exports  to  China  and  Japan,  and  to  the  preference 
shown  by  English  spinners  for  American  cotton. 

Egyptian  Cotton.  Egyptian  cotton,  on  account  of 
its  long  staple  and  silky  gloss,  is  imported  in  consider- 
able quantities.  Egyptian  is  largely  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  hosiery,  and  also  for  mixing  with  worsted 
yarn.  Owing  to  its  gloss  it  is  used  for  mixing  with 
silk,  and  on  account  of  its  strength  it  is  made  into  the 
finer  sewing  threads.  Egyptian  cotton  is  sometimes 
so  charged  with  grease  that  it  has  a  greasy  smell;  and 
to  make  it  workable  it  is  necessary  to  sprinkle  it  with 
whitening.  It  has  been  observed  that  velvets  woven 
(or  piled)  with  Egyptian  filling  do  not  finish  as  well 
as  when  picked  with  yarns  made  from  American  cotton, 
the  reason  for  this  being  that  the  greasy  nature  of  the 
Egyptian  cotton  fiber  often  varies  in  strength,  causing 
different  shades  in  the  finished  goods.  This  greasy 
nature  is  said  to  be  due  to  two  things:  (1)  the  fertility 
of  the  soil;  (2)  the  extent  to  which  the  cell  walls  of  the 
fibers  are  developed. 

In  addition  to  cotton,  other  crops  are  grown  in  Egypt 
—  rice,  sugar,  beans,  barley,  onions,  etc.  —  and  the 


COTTON  109 

acreage  devoted  to  cotton  is  regulated  to  some  extent 
by  the  prospects  as  to  which  crops  are  likely  to  pay 
best.  It  is  calculated  that  not  more  than  one-third  of 
the  area  is  usually  devoted  to  cotton. 

Sea  Island  Cotton.  This  is  the  finest  growth  of  cot- 
ton, and  it  commands  the  highest  price.  The  staple, 
which  is  long  and  silky,  varies  in  length  from  one  and  a 
half  to  two  and  a  half  inches.  It  is  used  for  making  fine 
muslins,  laces,  spool  cotton,  and  other  fabrics,  and  is 
also  largely  mixed  with  silk.  It  is  said  that  this  cotton 
was  first  introduced  into  America  in  1786  from  the 
Bahama  Islands,  whither  it  had  been  brought  from  the 
West  Indies.  It  was  first  cultivated  in  Georgia,  where 
it  was  found  that  the  small  islands  running  along  the 
coast  were  best  adapted  for  its  growth,  hence  the  name 
"  Sea  Island. "  It  was  also  grown  on  the  uplands  of 
Georgia,  but  although  remaining  good,  the  quality 
deteriorated.  Counts  as  high  as  four  hundred  are  occa- 
sionally spun  in  Sea  Island  cotton. 

Other  Varieties.  Cotton  grown  in  the  Southern  States 
under  widely  varying  conditions  of  the  soil,  climate, 
and  care  in  cultivation,  naturally  varies  in  length, 
strength,  and  other  qualities  of  staple.  Cotton  known 
as  "  Uplands  "  or  "  Boweds  "  varies  in  length  from 
three-fourths  to  one  and  one-sixteenth  inches  and  is 
used  for  filling;  this  is  grown  in  North  and  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Tennessee. 
Cotton  used  for  twist  is  grown  in  Texas,  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  and  Arkansas,  and  the  length  of  the  staple 
varies  from  one  to  one  and  three-sixteenths  inches.  In 


110  TEXTILES 

the  swampy  and  bottom  lands  in  some  of  the  states 
(notably  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Arkan- 
sas), cotton  is  grown  with  staple  ranging  from  one  and 
one-eighth  to  one  and  one-fourth  inches.  In  addition 
to  these,  there  are  especially  long  stapled  growths, 
known  as  "  Extras,"  "  Allen  Seed,"  and  "  Peelers," 
which  measure  one  and  three-eighths  to  one  and  five- 
eighths  inches.  Of  late  there  has  been  an  extensive 
demand  for  long-stapled  American  cotton  (one  and 
three-sixteenths  to  one  and  one-half  inches),  owing 
to  the  development  of  fine  spinning. 

Cotton  Raising.  Cotton  is  planted  with  a  machine, 
which  puts  it  under  the  ground  about  one  and  one-half 
to  two  inches.  It  is  not  planted  as  corn  is,  that  is, 
dropped  so  far  apart,  but  is  planted  in  a  continuous 
stream.  After  the  cotton  comes  up  out  of  the  ground, 
when  it  is  about  three  inches  high,  it  is  hoed  by  ordinary 
labor  with  a  hoe,  and  is  cut  out  or,  rather,  thinned. 
This  is  called  "  chopping  out  "  and  is  for  the  purpose 
of  removing  the  inferior  or  weak  plants  until  only  one 
strong  plant  is  left.  The  distance  between  the  plants 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  plant,  frequently  about 
twelve  inches  being  left  between  them. 

The  American  Crop.  The  first  step  taken  is  the 
preparation  of  the  ground  for  planting.  This  begins 
in  the  southern  part  of  Texas  as  early  as  the  middle  of 
January,  in  Florida  about  the  third  week;  in  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  February;  in  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  and  South 
Carolina  from  about  the  middle  of  February  to  the 


COTTON  111 

beginning  of  March.  Actual  planting  begins  according 
to  latitude,  principally  from  the  middle  of  March  to 
the  middle  of  April,  and  ends  in  the  first  half  of  May. 
These  dates,  however,  are  dependent  upon  the  state  of 
the  weather.  When  the  weather  is  unusually  wet  the 
start  is  late.  The  plant  suffers  from  the  rank  growth  of 
grass  and  weeds,  and  extra  labor  is  required  to  keep  the 
fields  clean.  In  abnormally  hot  weather,  especially  after 
rains,  the  plant  sheds  its  leaves,  thus  exposing  the  bolls, 
which  fall  off,  whereupon  replanting  becomes  necessary. 
In  addition  to  injuries  by  the  weather  the  cotton-plant 
is  subject  to  depredations  by  insects.  Of  late  years  the 
greatest  pest  has  been  the  Mexican  boll  weevil. 

The  cotton-plant  blooms  ten  or  eleven  weeks  after 
planting.  An  early  bloom  is  taken  as  a  sign  of  good 
crops.  When  the  crop  is  an  early  one,  picking  may 
commence  in  the  districts  in  which  it  ripens  first  in  the 
latter  half  of  July;  but  the  usual  date  is  the  beginning 
of  August,  following  on  in  the  various  districts  in  suc- 
cession until  the  early  part  of  September.  The  plant 
goes  on  fruiting  as  long  as  the  weather  is  mild  and  open. 
It  finishes  in  the  early  regions  about  the  beginning  of 
December,  the  others  following  through  December  and 
closing  in  the  later  regions  about  the  middle  of  January. 
Frosts  play  an  important  part  in  the  ultimate  yield. 
An  early  killing  frost  over  the  entire  belt  would  curtail 
the  size  of  the  crop  by  500,000  bales  in  a  season,  as  was 
the  case  in  1909  when  about  32,000,000  acres  were 
planted.  Light  frosts  and  late  frosts  do  little  harm  to 
the  cotton-plant;  in  fact  it  is  contended  that  the  late 


112  TEXTILES 

frosts  do  much  good  under  certain  conditions  of  the 
crop,  by  opening  the  bolls  that  otherwise  would  not 
open,  and  thus  adding  to  the  quantity  of  the  late  pick- 
ings. The  effect  of  frost  upon  the  lint  so  picked  is  to 
produce  tinged  and  stained  cotton.  Early  killing  frosts 
occur  in  some  seasons  in  the  early  part  of  November, 
when  much  of  the  yield  may  be  curtailed.  When 
killing  frosts  occur  late  in  the  season,  when  the  fruiting 
is  practically  over,  it  has  little  or  no  effect  upon  the 
yield  except  as  regards  the  color. 

The  ripening  of  the  crop  proceeds  in  three  stages, 
the  bolls  nearest  the  ground  maturing  first,  then  those 
around  the  middle  of  the  plant,  and  lastly  the  top  crop. 
Pods  half  ripe  are  often  forced  open  and  the  fiber  sent 
on  with  good  cotton.  East  Indian  is  more  highly 
charged  with  unripe  cotton  than  American.  The  work 
of  picking  is  not  heavy,  but  becomes  tedious  from  its 
sameness.  Each  hand  as  he  goes  to  the  field  is  sup- 
plied with  a  large  basket  and  a  bag.  The  basket  is 
left  at  the  head  of  the  cotton  row,  the  bag  being  sus- 
pended from  the  picker's  shoulder  by  a  strap,  and 
used  to  hold  the  cotton  as  it  is  plucked  from  the  boll. 
When  the  bag  is  full  it  is  emptied  into  the  basket,  and 
this  routine  continued  throughout  the  day.  Each 
hand  picks  from  140  to  180  pounds  of  cotton  per  day. 
The  average  yield  in  the  South  varies  from  500  to  600 
pounds  per  acre.  Every  boll  of  cotton  contains  seeds 
resembling  unground  coffee;  when  these  have  been  re- 
moved by  the  gin,  there  remains  about  one-third  the 
weight  of  the  boll  in  clean  cotton. 


114  TEXTILES 

Ginning.  The  next  operation  to  which  cotton  is 
subjected  is  that  of  ginning,  or  separating  the  seeds 
from  the  fiber.  This  work  was  formerly  accomplished 
by  hand,  and  so  great  was  the  quantity  of  seeds  that 
frequently  an  entire  day  was  occupied  by  a  workman 
in  separating  them  from  one  pound  of  cotton.  At  the 
present  day  the  devices  for  separating  the  lint  from 
the  seed  are  of  two  classes:  roller  gins  and  saw  gins. 
The  former  device  is  the  more  ancient,  having  been 
used  from  the  earliest  times  by  the  Hindoos.  In  its 
simplest  form  it  consists  of  two  rollers  made  of  metal 
or  hard  wood,  fixed  in  rude  frames,  through  which  the 
cotton  is  drawn  and  the  seeds  forced  out  in  the  process. 
An  improved  form  of  the  roller  gin  is  at  present  used 
for  cleaning  the  long-staple  Sea  Island  cotton.  The 
saw  gin,  which  works  on  an  entirely  different  principle, 
is  the  machine  which,  with  its  improvements  and 
modifications,  has  separated  the  seed  from  fiber  almost 
exclusively  for  one  hundred  years  of  American  cotton 
growing.  In  this  machine  the  seed  cotton  is  fed  into  a 
box,  one  side  of  which  is  formed  of  a  grating  of  metal 
strips  set  close  together,  leaving  a  narrow  opening  from 
one-eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide.  Into  these 
openings  a  row  or  "  gang  "  of  thin  circular  saws  project 
mounted  upon  a  revolving  mandrel.  The  long,  pro- 
truding teeth  of  the  saws,  whirling  rapidly,  catch  the 
fibers,  and  pull  them  away  from  the  seeds.  The  latter, 
being  too  large  to  pass  through  the  openings  of  the 
grating,  roll  downward  and  out  of  the  machine.  The 
lint,  removed  from  the  row  of  saws  by  a  revolving 


COTTON 


115 


brush,  passes  between  rollers  and  is  delivered  from  the 
machine  in  the  form  of  a  lap  or  bat. 

This  machine  is  responsible  for  much  of  the  "  nep  " 
(or  knots)  found  in  American  cotton,  which  is  caused 
when  the  machine  is  overcharged.  The  Whitney  gin 
will  turn  through  more  cotton  than  any  other  type  of 
machine,  and  will  clean  from  200  to  300  pounds  per 
hour.  When  the  machine  is 
running  at  high  speed  the 
tendency  is  to  string  and  knot 
the  cotton. 

The  working  of  the  ordinary 
gin  is  as  follows :  The  wagon 
loaded  with  cotton  is  driven 
under  a  galvanized  spout 
called  the  sucker,  through 
which  there  is  a  suction  of 
air  which  draws  the  cotton 
into  the  gins.  In  each  of 
the  gins  there  are  seventy 
circular  saws  revolving  on  COTTON  GIN 

rmo      cV»aft          TVioco      caxirc     nr^         The  upper  figure  shows  Whitney's  in- 

one  snait.  lese  saws  are  vention.  The  lower  figure  shows  a  later 
about  one  inch  apart,  and  form* 

the  teeth  go  through  the  gin  breast,  much  as  if  one 
were  to  put  the  teeth  of  one  comb  into  the  teeth  of 
another  comb.  This  process  takes  the  lint  cotton  off  the 
seed,  and  by  the  use  of  brushes  the  cotton  goes  into  the 
lint  flute,  into  the  condenser,  and  into  the  box,  where 
it  is  revolved  and  made  into  a  bale.  While  the  lint  is 
going  through  this  process,  the  seeds,  being  heavier  and 


116  TEXTILES 

smaller,  draw  to  the  bottom  of  the  gins,  fall  into 
an  augur  which  is  operated  by  a  belt,  and  then  are 
dropped  into  a  conveyor  and  carried  to  the  seed  pile 
or  houses.  The  lint  goes  in  one  direction  and  the 
seed  in  another. 

When  the  seed  is  taken  from  the  cotton  at  the  gin, 
it  is  covered  with  a  lint  of  cotton.  In  order  to  remove 
this  the  seeds  are  put  through  a  delinter,  which  takes 
off  the  small,  short  fiber  from  the  seeds,  leaving  them 
clean.  This  seed  is  then  put  through  a  huller  which 
takes  off  the  outside  hull  or  thick  skin.  The  kernel 
is  then  put  through  a  hydraulic  press,  which  squeezes 
the  cotton-seed  oil  from  it  and  leaves  the  "  meal." 
Cotton-seed  oil  is  used  for  many  purposes,  such  as 
making  olive  oil,  butter  or  oleomargarine,  lard,  etc. 
Of  late  an  experiment  has  been  made  with  the  meal 
for  use  in  the  place  of  flour,  and  has  been  pro- 
nounced a  success.  Seed  crushing  has  now  become 
an  important  industry,  with  the  cotton  crop  each  year 
amounting  to  between  12,000,000  and  13,000,000  bales 
of  450  pounds  each. 

The  Cotton  Gin.  The  cotton  gin  was  invented  in 
1792  by  Eli  Whitney,  a  citizen  of  Georgia,  but  a  native 
of  Massachusetts.  The  importance  of  this  invention 
to  the  cotton  industry  of  the  world  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. It  was  the  one  thing  needed  to  insure  a 
sufficient  supply  of  raw  material  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  newly  invented  machinery  for  spinning  and 
weaving.  The  result  of  Whitney's  invention  was  the 
rapid  extension  of  the  culture  of  cotton  in  the  United 


COTTON  117 

States,  and  its  permanent  establishment  as  one  of  the 
leading  staples  of  the  country. 

Cotton  Bales.  After  the  cotton  is  ginned  and  baled 
it  is  shipped  to  the  mill.  The  standard  size  of  a  cotton 
bale  in  the  United  States  is  54  X  27  X  27  inches,  and 
contains  nearly  500  pounds.  To  produce  this  bale 
over  1,600  pounds  of  seed  cotton  are  required.  The 
bales  are  wrapped  in  jute  bagging  and  strapped  with 
sheet-iron  bands,  this  covering  adding  about  twenty-five 
pounds  to  the  weight  of  the  bale. 

The  Bessonette  cylindrical  bale  is  turned  out  by  a 
self-feeding  press,  which  receives  the  lap  of  lint  from 
the  gin  between  two  heavy  rollers.  The  fiber  is  rolled 
upon  a  long  wooden  spool  so  tightly  as  to  press  out 
nearly  all  the  air,  and  forms  a  package  of  uniform 
shape  and  size  throughout,  having  a  diameter  of  four- 
teen to  sixteen  inches.  The  bales  are  covered  with 
cotton  cloth,  held  in  place  by  small  wire  hoops.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  cotton  is  rolled  so  tightly  by  this 
process  that  the  bales  are  practically  fireproof  and 
waterproof. 

Egyptian  bales  are  compressed  into  a  shape  similar 
to  the  American  bale,  but  the  average  weight  is  over 
700  pounds. 

The  Indian  bales,  which  are  more  closely  compressed 
than  the  American,  usually  weigh  400  pounds. 

Cotton  is  purchased  by  the  mill  authorities  in  the 
shape  of  a  bale.  The  method  is  to  purchase  from 
cotton  brokers,  samples  being  furnished  to  the  buyer 
from  which  to  make  selection. 


COTTON  119 

The  commercial  value  of  cotton  is  determined  by 
its  length,  fineness,  strength,  pliability,  smoothness, 
regularity,  color,  and  cleanliness.  As  a  rule,  the  cotton 
that  is  the  longest  is  also  the  finest,  but  by  no  means 
the  strongest.  Thus,  Sea  Island  cotton  has  the  longest 
staple  with  the  least  diameter,  and  Hinganghat  (an 
Indian  cotton)  is  much  inferior  to  it  in  both  respects. 
The  strength  of  the  latter,  however,  is  50  per  cent 
greater  than  the  strength  of  Sea  Island  cotton.  In 
every  other  respect  Sea  Island  cotton  is  in  advance 
over  Hinganghat  cotton.  It  is  the  most  valuable, 
especially  for  the  production  of  fine  yarns. 

The  most  regular  cotton  is  Orleans,  in  which  the 
length  of  the  staple  varies  only  a  small  fraction  of  an 
inch.  In  consequence  of  this  there  is  less  loss  in  work- 
ing Orleans  than  is  the  case  with  the  other  cottons, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  their  fibers  vary  in  length. 

The  Leading  Growths  of  Cotton.  In  order  to  pur- 
chase the  raw  material  of  the  cotton  manufacture,  to 
arrange  the  "  mixing  "  or  have  much  to  do  with  the  raw 
material  in  any  other  capacity,  one  should  know  as 
much  as  possible  of  its  characteristics;  for  ignorance 
may  cause  much  trouble  and  no  little  loss  to  those 
who  have  to  spin  the  cotton.  Each  crop  differs  from  the 
previous  one  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  as  it  depends 
entirely  upon  the  weather.  Thus,  in  a  very  dry  season 
there  is  a  "  droughty  crop  "  which,  while  it  may  be 
(and  generally  is)  clean  and  well  up  in  class,  will  be  weak, 
short,  and  of  irregular  fiber.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
desired  length  and  strength  of  staple  the  buyer  will 


120 


TEXTILES 


have  to  pay  a  relatively  higher  price  than  in  what  may 
be  termed  a  normal  season. 

Again,  in  a  crop  that  is  poor  in  class,  a  defect  that 
may  have  been  caused  by  too  much  rain  in  the  early 


FANCY    COTTON    LOOM 

or  middle  stages  of  its  growth,  or  by  unfavorable  weather 
for  the  production  of  cotton  of  good  grade,  the  staple 
will  probably  be  all  that  could  be  desired,  leafy  and 
small,  but  the  buyer  will  have  to  pay  more  to  obtain 
his  usual  grade,  especially  if  he  requires  it  for  good 


COTTON  121 

filling.  Then  there  are  seasons  when  the  crop  turns 
out  fairly  well  in  class  and  staple,  but  the  cotton 
is  wasty,  dirty,  or  abnormally  leafy;  and  in  this  case 
the  buyer  has  to  exercise  great  care  and  judgment  in 
calculating  the  extra  loss  that  will  ensue. 

The  terms  of  purchase  of  cotton  include  an  allowance 
of  4  per  cent  for  tares.  That  is,  a  bale  of  cotton 
weighing  400  pounds  would  be  paid  for  as  384  pounds, 
or  should  the  buyer  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  tares 
are  unusually  heavy,  he  has  the  option  of  claiming  the 
actual  tare.  This  is  ascertained  by  stripping  ten  bales 
and  weighing  the  covering  and  the  hoops,  which  means 
considerable  work,  and  although  it  is  at  the  option  of 
the  buyer,  it  is  an  exception  rather  than  the  rule. 

As  a  result  of  these  causes  we  find  cotton  divided 
into  the  following  grades: 

Full  Grades  of  Cotton.  Egyptian  cotton  is  graded 
as  follows:  extra  fine,  fine,  good,  fully  good  fair,  good 
fair,  fair,  middling  fair,  middling. 

Indian  cotton  is  graded  as  follows:  superfine,  fine, 
fully  good,  good,  fully  good  fair,  good  fair,  fully  fair. 

Brazilian  cotton  may  be  classed:  fine,  good,  good 
fair,  fair,  middling  fair,  middling. 

American  cotton  has  seven  grades :  fair,  middling  fair, 
good  middling,  middling,  low  middling,  good  ordinary, 
and  ordinary. 

In  addition  to  the  full  grades  there  are  half  and 
quarter  grades.  The  American  cottons  are  graded  as 
follows : 


122  TEXTILES 

Full  Grades.  Half  Grades.  Quarter  Grades. 

Fair,  Strict  middling  fair,  Barely  fair, 

Middling  fair,  Strict  good  middling,         Fully  middling  fair, 

Good  middling,          Strict  middling,  Barely  middling  fair, 

Middling,  Strict  low  middling,  Fully  good  middling, 

Low  middling,  Strict  good  ordinary,         Barely  good  middling, 

Good  ordinary,  Strict  ordinary.  Fully  middling, 

Ordinary.  Barely  middling, 

Fully  low  middling, 
Barely  low  middling, 
Fully  good  ordinary, 
Barely  good  ordinary. 

The  folk  wing  are  a  few  of  the  leading  varieties  of 
cotton,  with  the  numbers  of  yarn  they  will  make: 

Cotton.  Length.  Warp.  Filling. 


Sea  Island  (selected)  . 
Sea  Island  (ordinary) 
Florida  Sea  Island  .  .  . 
Georgia  

....If 
....If 
....If 

to2J 

to  2 
to  2 
to  If 

up  to  200 
150 
150 
120 

250  to  300 
220 
220 
180 

Egyptian 

..11 

to  H 

70 

120 

Peeler 

•Iz 

to  If 

50 

70 

Orleans  or  Gulf  
Upland  

....ly1* 
1 

to  U 
to  1| 

40 
30 

60 
45 

Texas  . 

.  J 

to  IrSr 

25 

35 

During  the  last  few  years  considerable  discussion 
has  taken  place  among  mill  men,  both  in  this  country 
and  abroad,  bearing  upon  the  subject  of  moisture  con- 
tained in  baled  cotton.  Of  course  the  natural  moisture 
in  the  cotton  fiber  varies,  as  might  be  expected,  from 
year  to  year,  according  to  the  character  of  the  season 
during  the  picking.  The  standard  of  moisture  is  based 
upon  what  is  known  as  regain,  that  is,  if  100  parts  of 
absolutely  dry  cotton  are  exposed  to  the  air,  they  will 


COTTON  123 

absorb  about  8|  per  cent  of  moisture,  although  a  much 
higher  per  cent  is  sometimes  found. 

In  some  of  the  small  Southern  mills  located  in  the 
cotton  raising  section,  the  cotton  is  delivered  by  team 
direct  from  the  gin,  without  going  through  the  com- 
press. In  this  way  they  save  the  greater  part  of  trans- 
portation expense.  They  also  save  in  the  strength  of 
the  cotton  fiber  itself,  since  the  process  of  compression 
injures  the  fiber.  They  get  better  cotton,  being  nearer 
the  source  of  supply  and  having  better  opportunities 
for  selection. 

When  the  cotton  arrives  in  the  shape  of  a  bale,  it  is 
necessary  to  cut  ties  and  loosen  up  the  cotton  before 
use.  This  may  be  done  in  two  ways.  One  method 
being  to  pull  the  bale  apart  by  hand,  and  the  other  to 
pass  it  through  a  bale  breaker  or  similar  machine, 
which  loosens  up  the  cotton  by  means  of  beaters.  It 
now  starts  on  a  continuous  journey  through  successive 
machines  until  it  is  made  into  yarn.  The  yarn  is  made 
into  a  warp,  and  the  warp  interlaced  with  the  filling 
yarn  to  make  cloth,  and  the  cloth  finished  for  the  market. 

Not  every  country  is  adapted  for  making  cotton  yarn, 
for  certain  conditions  are  necessary  to  manufacture 
good  yarn.  If  the  atmosphere  is  too  warm  or  too  dry, 
the  fibers  will  become  brittle  and  will  not  twist  well; 
if  too  wet  they  collapse  and  stick.  Lancashire  County, 
England,  seems  to  have  been  fitted  by  nature  for  cotton 
spinning.  It  has  just  the  right  climate,  a  moist  tem- 
perature, and  copious  water  supply.  There  are  hills 
on  the  east  of  the  valley,  forming  a  water  shed,  and  the 


124  TEXTILES 

town  lies  in  a  basin  covered  with  a  bed  of  stiff  clay,  that 
holds  the  water,  allowing  it  to  evaporate  just  fast  enough 
to  keep  the  air  in  the  moist  condition  needed  to  fit  the 


PICKER   ROOM 

1.  Hopper  where  the  cotton  from  the  bale  is  fed  into  Picker. 

2.  "Lap"  showing  how  the  cotton  is  prepared  for  the  card. 

3.  Picker  Machine  (complete). 

fibers  for  weaving.     Countries  that  have  not  these  con- 
ditions are  obliged  to  produce  them  by  artificial  means 
-  humidifying,  etc. 


CHAPTER  X 
MANUFACTURE  OF  COTTON  YARN 

Picker  Room.     The  first  step  in  the  conversion  of 
the  bale  of  cotton  into  yarn  consists  in  giving  the  cot- 


PICKER   ROOM  — SHOWING   END   VIEW   OF   PICKER 
1.    Lap  of  Cotton. 

ton  fibers  a  thorough  cleaning.  This  is  accomplished 
by  feeding  the  cotton  to  a  series  of  picker  machines 
called  in  order,  bale  breaker,  cotton  opener  and  auto- 
matic feeder,  breaker  picker,  intermediate  picker,  and 

125 


126  TEXTILES 

finisher  picker.  These  machines  pull  to  shreds  the 
matted  locks  and  wads  of  cotton  (as  we  find  them 
in  the  bale),  beat  out  the  dirt,  stones,  and  seeds,  and 
finally  leave  the  cotton  in  the  form  of  batting  upon 


CARD    ROOM 

1.  Roving  Can  —  receptacle  to  hold  the  sliver.     After  it  is  filled  it  is  transferred  to  either 

ribbon  lap  machine  or  drawing  frame. 

2.  Cylinder  of  the  card.     The  cotton  is  on  this  cylinder  in  the  form  of  a  web. 

the  cylinders;  this  batting  passes  from  one  machine  to 
another  until  it  issues  from  the  finisher  picker  as  a 
downy  roll  or  lap. 

(Sometimes  the  bale  breaker  is  not  used  in  the  mill.) 

Carding  Machine.     When  the  lap  of  cotton  leaves 

the  picker  it  goes  to  the  carding  machine,  where  it  is 

combed  into  parallel  fibers  by  means  of  a  revolving 

cylinder  covered  with  wire  teeth  called  card  clothing. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   COTTON   YARN  127 

As  the  cotton  is  fed  to  the  card  in  the  form  of  a  sheet  or 
lap  from  the  picker,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  freed 
from  a  considerable  quantity  of  sand,  seed,  etc.,  but 
there  still  remain  nep,  fine  leaf,  and  short  fibers,  which 
are  removed  during  carding. 

On  leaving  the  card  cylinder  the  lap  has  become  a 
gossamer-like  web  thirty-nine  inches  broad.  This  web 
next  passes  through  small  "  eyes,"  which  condense  it 
into  a  narrow  band  about  an  inch  in  width,  known 
as  card  sliver. 

When  a  lap  is  delivered  from  the  finisher  picker,  it 
should  weigh  a  given  number  of  ounces  per  yard.  The 
method  of  ascertaining  the  weight  is  to  make  each  lap 
a  standard  number  of  yards  in  length  and  weigh  each 
lap.  The  machine  can  be  regulated  so  as  to  give  the 
desired  weight  per  yard. 

Combing.  When  an  extremely  fine  and  strong  yarn 
is  required,  in  addition  to  carding,  the  fibers  are  also 
subjected  to  the  process  of  "  combing.7'  This  may  be 
said  to  be  merely  a  continuation  of  the  carding  process 
to  a  more  perfect  degree.  The  chief  object  is  to  extract 
all  fibers  below  a  certain  required  length,  and  cast  them 
aside  as  "  waste."  This  is  done  in  order  to  secure  the 
very  best  fibers  calculated  to  give  the  strongest  and  best 
results  in  the  spun  yarn. 

The  process  of  combing  follows  carding.  The  card 
delivers  the  cotton  in  the  form  of  a  sliver  or  strand, 
while  the  combing  machine  requires  the  fibers  to  be 
delivered  to  it  in  the  form  of  sheets,  nine  to  twelve 
inches  wide.  This  is  done  by  taking  a  number  of  card 


128  TEXTILES 

slivers  and  forming  a  lap  of  them  by  passing  the  sliver 
through  a  sliver  lap  machine.  The  laps  are  passed 
through  the  comber.  This  machine  consists  essentially 
of  a  series  of  rollers,  nippers,  and  rows  of  metal  teeth. 
By  the  action  of  these,  the  short  fibers  are  separated 
and  combed  out,  and  the  long  ones  arranged  in  parallel 
order  in  the  form  of  a  thin,  silky  strand,  in  which  con- 
dition it  is  sent  to  the  drawing  frames  to  be  drawn 
out.  Of  course  it  must  be  understood  that  a  combing 
machine  is  used  by  only  a  small  percentage  of  cotton 
spinners.  For  ordinary  purposes  a  sufficiently  good 
quality  can  be  made  without  a  comber.  As  there  is 
from  15  to  35  per  cent  waste  to  this  operation  it  may  be 
readily  seen  that  it  is  costly,  and  limited  entirely  to  the 
production  of  the  very  best  and  finest  yarns,  such  as 
those  intended  for  sewing  or  machine  thread,  fine 
hosiery,  lace  curtains,  underwear,  imitation  silks,  and 
fine  grades  of  white  goods.  There  are  combing  machines 
that  comb  short  staple  cotton. 

Drawing.  The  cans  containing  the  slivers  are  taken 
from  the  card  or  combing  machine  (as  the  case  may 
be)  to  the  drawing  frame.  The  object  of  this  machine 
is  mainly  to  equalize  the  slivers,  combining  a  number 
of  them  together  so  as  to  distribute  the  fibers  uniformly. 
The  condition  of  the  fibers  on  leaving  the  card  or  comb 
is  such  that  a  slight  pull  will  lay  them  perfectly  straight 
or  parallel,  and  this  pull  is  given  by  the  drawing  frame 
rollers.  Of  course  the  fibers  coming  from  the  comb  are 
parallel,  but  it  is  necessary  to  alternate  them  by  the 
drawing.  The  drawing  frame  is  a  machine  consisting 


130  TEXTILES 

of  a  number  of  sets  of  rollers,  the  front  roller  having  a 
greater  speed  than  the  rear  ones. 

The  slivers,  which  are  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same 
weight  per  yard,  are  combined  together  in  the  drawing 
and  emerge  from  the  pair  of  front  rollers  as  one  sliver 
weighing  the  same  number  of  grains  per  yard  as  a  single 
sliver  fed  up  at  the  back.  This  process  is  repeated  two 
or  three  times,  according  to  requirements,  the  material 
then  being  referred  to  as  having  passed  through  so 
many  "  heads  "  of  drawing.  It  is  not  unusual  to  pass 
Indian  and  American  cotton  through  three  deliveries. 

The  object  of  all  the  processes  thus  far  described  has 
been  that  of  cleaning  (in  the  picker),  arranging  the  fibers 
in  a  parallel  position  to  each  other,  making  uniform,  and 
drawing  out  the  stock.  In  every  case  the  stock  delivered 
from  a  machine  is  lighter  than  when  fed  into  it,  and  con- 
tains just  twist  enough  to  hold  it  together  and  prevent 
its  being  stretched  or  strained  when  unwound  from  the 
bobbin,  and  fed  into  the  next  machine.  The  minimum 
amount  of  twist  in  roving  is  desirable  for  the  reason 
that  it  permits  the  stock  to  be  drawn  out  more 
easily  and  uniformly,  the  little  twist  that  is  put  in  the 
roving  by  the  slubber  being  practically  eliminated 
when  it  is  passed  through  the  rolls  of  the  intermediate. 
The  same  applies  in  the  case  of  the  roving  passing  from 
the  roving  to  the  spinning  frame. 

Fly  Frames.  The  process  in  the  manufacture  of 
yarn  after  the  cotton  has  passed  through  the  drawing 
frame  consists  of  further  attenuation  of  the  sliver,  but 
as  the  cotton  sliver  has  been  drawn  out  as  much  as  is 


MANUFACTURE   OF   COTTON   YARN 


131 


possible  without  breakage,  a  small  amount  of  "  twist  " 
is  introduced  to  allow  of  the  continued  drawing  out  of 
the  sliver. 

From  the  drawing  frame,  the  drawing  passes  through 
two,  three,  or  four  fly  frames,  according  to  the  number 
of  yarn  to  be  made.  All  these  machines  are  identical 


ROVING    DEPARTMENT 

1.    Slubber  machine,  showing  sliver  of  cotton  passing  through  the  rolls  and  then  given  a 

twist  while  it  is  wound  on  the  bobbin. 

principle  and  construction,  and  differ  only  in  the 
dze  of  some  of  the  working  parts.  They  are  the  slub- 
ber, intermediate,  roving,  —  and  fine  or  jack  frame-fine, 
and  the  function  of  each  is  to  draw  and  twist. 

Intermediate    Frame.     The    function    of    the    inter- 
lediate  frame  is  to  receive  the  slightly  twisted  rove 
from  the  slubber  and  add  thereto  a  little  more  twist 


132  TEXTILES 

and  draft.  The  rove  is  taken  from  two  bobbins  to  one 
spindle  in  the  machine,  an  arrangement  which  tends 
to  insure  strength  and  uniformity.  The  principle  of 
the  machine  is  in  other  respects  the  same  as  that  of 
the  slubbing  frame. 

Roving  Frame.  The  function  of  the  roving  frame 
is  to  receive  the  twisted  rove  from  the  intermediate 
and  add  more  twist  and  draft,  thereby  further  attenuat- 
ing the  rove.  As  in  the  intermediate  frame  the  rove  is 
generally  taken  from  two  bobbins  for  one  spindle. 

Fine  or  Jack  Frame.  This  machine  is  used  when 
fine  yarns  have  to  be  made.  It  is  built  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  preceding  frames,  the  only  difference 
being  that  a  finer  rove  is  made  from  which  finer  numbers 
of  yarn  can  be  spun.  As  in  the  slubber,  intermediate, 
and  roving  frames,  the  rove  is  taken  from  two  bobbins 
for  one  spindle. 

Spinning.  In  the  manufacture  of  single  ply  yarn 
the  final  process  is  that  of  spinning,  which  consists  in 
drawing  out  the  cotton  roving  to  the  required  size,  and 
giving  it  the  proper  amount  of  twist  necessary  to  make 
the  yarn  of  the  required  strength.  While  the  spinning 
frame  is  built  on  entirely  different  principles  from  the 
roving,  intermediate,  or  slubber  frame,  the  object  of  each 
machine  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  spinning  frame.  The 
principal  point  of  difference  is  the  amount  of  twist 
imparted  to  the  cotton  roving. 

The  objects  of  the  spinning  process  are: 

1.  Completion  of  the  drawing  out  of  the  cotton  rov- 
ing to  the  required  size. 


134  TEXTILES 

2.  Insertion  of  the  proper  amount  of  twist  to  give 
the  thread  produced  strength. 

Excessive  speed  causes  defects  in  the  yarn  and  undue 
wear  and  tear  on  the  machine. 

There  are  two  methods  of  spinning:  ring  spinning 
and  mule  spinning.  The  mule  spinning  is  the  older 
form.  There  are  but  few  mule  frames  in  operation  in 
this  country. 

Mule  Spinning.  The  function  of  mule  spinning  is  to 
spin  on  the  bare  spindle,  or  upon  the  short  paper  tubes, 
when  such  are  required  to  form  a  base  for  the  cop  bottom. 
The  mule  will  spin  any  counts  of  yarn  required,  and  is 
especially  adapted  for  yarn  in  which  elasticity  and 
" cover"  are  essentials.  Hosiery  yarns  are  produced 
on  the  ordinary  cotton  mule  and  are  very  soft  spun. 

The  bobbins  of  roving  are  placed  in  a  creel  at  the 
back  of  the  machine,  the  stands  of  roving  being  passed 
through  the  rolls  and  drawn  out  in  the  same  manner  as 
at  the  roving  frame.  The  spindles  are  mounted  on  a 
carriage  which  moves  backward  and  forward  in  its 
relation  to  the  rolls,  the  distance  roved  being  about  five 
feet.  When  the  spindles  are  moving  away  from  the 
frame  the  stock  is  being  delivered  by  the  rolls,  the 
speed  at  which  the  spindles  move  away  from  the  rolls 
being  just  enough  to  keep  the  ends  at  a  slight  tension. 
The  twist  is  put  in  the  yarn  at  the  same  time. 

When  the  spindles  reach  their  greatest  distance 
from  the  rolls,  the  latter  are  automatically  stopped  and 
the  direction  of  the  motion  of  the  spindle  carriage 
reversed.  The  yarn  is  wound  on  the  spindle  while  the 


136  TEXTILES 

carriage  is  being  moved  back  toward  the  rolls,  the 
motion  of  the  rolls  being  stopped  in  the  meanwhile, 
the  spindles  revolving  only  fast  enough  to  wind  up 
the  thread  that  has  been  spun  during  the  outward 
move  of  the  carriage. 

The  mule  is  a  much  more  complicated  machine  than 
the  ring  frame,  its  floor  space  is  much  greater,  and  more 
skilled  help  is  required  for  its  operation.  Under  or- 
dinary conditions  it  is  not  practical  to  spin  finer  yarn 
than  No.  60s  on  a  ring,  while  as  high  as  No.  500s  is  said 
to  have  been  spun  on  a  mule.  The  same  number  of 
yarn  can  be  spun  on  a  mule  with  less  twist  than  on  the 
ring.  This  is  important  in  hosiery  yarn. 

Ring  spinning  is  used  for  coarse  numbers,  and  has 
greater  production  and  requires  less  labor  than  mule 
spinning.  Ring-spinning  yarn  is  used  for  warp  purposes. 

Ring  Spinning.  The  function  of  ring  spinning  is  to 
draw  out  the  rove  and  spin  it  into  yarn  on  a  con- 
tinuous system.  The  yarn  made  is  spun  upon  bobbins. 

The  ring  spinning  differs  from  mule  spinning  in  having 
the  carriage  replaced  by  a  ring,  from  which  the  machine 
takes  its  name.  The  ring  is  from  one  and  one-half  to 
three  inches  in  diameter,  grooved  inside  and  out,  and 
is  connected  with  a  flat  steel  wire  shaped  like  the  letter 
D,  called  the  "  traveller."  Its  office  is  to  constitute  a 
drag  upon  the  yarn,  by  means  of  which  the  latter  is 
wound  upon  a  bobbin.  Its  size  and  weight  depend  on 
the  counts  of  yarns  to  be  spun;  coarse  yarns  demand 
the  largest  ring  and  heaviest  traveller. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THREAD   AND   COTTON   FINISHING 

Thread.  In  general  a  twisted  strand  of  cotton, 
flax,  wool,  silk,  etc.,  spun  out  to  considerable  length, 
is  called  thread.  In  a  specific  sense,  thread  is  a  com- 
pound cord  consisting  of  two  or  more  yarns  firmly 
united  by  twisting.  Thread  is  used  in  some  kinds 
of  weaving,  but  its  principal  use  is  for  sewing,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  composed  of  either  silk,  cotton, 
or  flax.  Thread  made  of  silk  is  technically  known  as 
seeing  silk;  that  made  of  flax  is  known  as  linen  thread; 
while  cotton  thread  intended  for  sewing  is  commonly 
called  spool  cotton.  These  distinctions,  while  gener- 
ally observed  by  trade,  are  not  always  maintained  by 
the  public. 

The  spool  cotton  of  to-day  is  of  a  different  grade 
from  that  made  before  the  sewing  machine  came  into 
general  use.  The  early  thread  was  but  three  cord,  and 
contained  such  a  large  number  of  knots,  thin  places, 
etc.,  that  it  could  not  be  worked  satisfactorily  on  the 
machines,  so  manufacturers  were  called  upon  to  pro- 
duce a  thread  that  would  be  of  the  same  thickness  in 
every  twist.  This  was  effected  by  making  the  thread 
of  six  cords  instead  of  three,  thereby  producing  a 
smoother  and  more  uniform  strand. 

138 


THREAD   AND   COTTON   FINISHING  139 

Manufacturing  Processes.  The  raw  cotton  for  the 
manufacture  of  thread  must  be  of  long  staple.  If  the 
fiber  is  short  the  thread  made  of  it  will  be  weak,  and 
hence  unsuited  for  the  purposes  required  of  it.  Ordi- 
nary cotton  is  not  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  the 
better  grades  of  spool  cotton  on  account  of  the  short- 
ness of  its  fiber.  Egyptian  and  Sea  Island  cotton  are 
used  because  they  have  a  much  longer  fiber  and  are 
softer  in  texture.  The  raw  cotton  comes  to  the  factory 
packed  in  great  bales,  and  is  usually  stored  away  for 
some  months  before  it  is  used.  The  first  step  in  the 
conversion  of  the  bale  of  cotton  into  thread  consists 
in  giving  the  fiber  a  thorough  cleaning.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  feeding  it  to  a  series  of  pickers  which  pull  the 
matted  locks  and  wads  to  shreds,  beat  out  the  dirt 
and  seeds,  and  roll  the  cotton  in  the  form  of  batting 
upon  cylinders  until  it  issues  from  the  finisher  lap 
machines  as  a  downy  roll  or  lap. 

The  lap  of  cotton  then  goes  to  the  carding  rooms, 
where  it  is  combed  into  parallel  fibers  by  means  of  a 
revolving  cylinder  covered  with  fine  wire  teeth,  some- 
times 90,000  of  them  to  the  square  foot.  On  leaving 
the  carding  machines  the  lap  has  become  a  gossamer-like 
web  thirty-nine  inches  broad.  This  web  is  next  passed 
through  a  small  "  eye  "  which  condenses  it  into  a  narrow 
band  about  an  inch  in  width,  known  as  the  sliver. 
By  this  time  the  fiber  has  been  so  drawn  out  that  one 
yard  of  the  original  lap  has  become  360  yards  of  the 
sliver.  The  sliver  now  looks  almost  perfect,  but  if  it 
were  spun  it  would  not  make  good  thread.  It  is  neces- 


140 


TEXTILES 


sary  to  lay  every  fiber  as  nearly  parallel  as  possible, 
so  that  there  will  be  an  equal  number  of  fibers  in  the 
strand  per  inch.  Besides  this,  the  remaining  dirt  and 
short  fibers  must  be  removed  and  the  knots  and  kinks 
in  the  fibers  straightened  out.  To  accomplish  these 
objects  the  cotton  must  be  "  combed."  First,  the 


WARP   ROOM 

1.  Beam  on  which  the  warp  is  wound. 

2.  Warp. 


3.  Creel. 

4.  Spools  in  the  creel. 


slivers  are  passed  through  several  sets  of  rollers,  each 
set  moving  faster  than  the  preceding,  so  that  the  strands 
are  drawn  out  fine  and  thin.  In  this  condition  the 
cotton  passes  to  a  doubling  frame,  and  from  thence  to 
the  lapping  frame,  a  device  combining  six  laps  into  one 
and  drawing  the  whole  out  into  one  fine,  delicate,  ropy 
lap. 


I 


THREAD   AND   COTTON   FINISHING  141 

The  comber  now  takes  the  lap  and  combs  out  all  the 
impurities  and  short  fibers,  at  a  sacrifice  of  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  material;  next,  it  combines  six  of  these 
fluffy  combed  rolls  of  fiber  into  one.  A  number  of 
these  rolls  are  then  drawn  out  by  another  machine 
twelve  times  as  long  as  they  were  before  and  twisted 
together  on  a  slubbing  frame.  This  last  drawing  re- 
duces the  roll  to  about  the  thickness  of  zephyr  yarn. 
After  being  further  doubled  and  twisted,  the  yarn,  or 
roll,  is  ready  for  the  mule  spinner,  which  accomplishes 
by  means  of  hundreds  of  spindles  and  wheels  what  the 
housewife  once  did  with  her  spinning  wheel.  The 
mule,  however,  does  the  work  of  more  than  1,000  hand 
spinners  and  takes  up  much  less  space.  On  this 
machine  900  spindles  take  the  yarn  from  1,800  bobbins, 
and  by  means  of  accelerating  rollers  and  a  carriage 
draw  out  and  twist  it  to  the  proper  fineness  for  the  size 
of  thread  wanted.  Having  passed  through  the  com- 
plex processes  of  cleansing,  combing,  drawing,  and 
spinning,  the  cotton  is  now  in  the  form  of  yarn  of  various 
sizes,  and  the  real  work  of  thread  making,  which  is  a 
distinct  art  from  yarn  making,  begins. 

The  thread-making  process  is  briefly  as  follows: 
The  yarn  is  doubled  and  twisted;  then  three  of  such 
yarns  are  twisted  together,  which  give  the  six-fold 
combination  for  six-cord  thread.  For  a  three-cord 
thread  three  yarns  are  twisted  together.  After  the 
twisting  is  completed  the  thread  is  reeled  into  skeins 
having  a  continuous  length  of  4,000  to  12,000  yards, 

cording  to  the  size,  and  is  then  sent  to  the  examining 


142  TEXTILES 

department  where  it  is  rigidly  inspected.  Every  strand 
is  looked  over,  and  any  found  to  be  defective  are  laid 
aside,  so  that  when  the  thread  is  put  on  the  market  it 
shall  be  as  perfect  as  care  and  skill  can  make  it. 

At  this  stage  of  the  work  the  skeins  of  thread  are 
of  the  pale  cream  color  common  to  all  unbleached 
cotton  goods,  and  are  technically  known  as  "  in  the 
gray."  They  therefore  have  to  be  bleached  pure 
white  or  dyed  in  fast  colors.  The  skeins,  whether 
intended  for  white  or  colored  thread,  are  first  placed  in 
large,  steam-tight  iron  tanks  and  boiled.  Here  the 
thread  remains  subjected  to  a  furious  boiling  for  six 
or  seven  hours;  when  removed  it  is  perfectly  clean,  but 
still  retains  the  brownish  gray  color  of  unbleached 
cotton.  It  then  goes  into  a  bath  of  chloride  of  lime 
and  is  bleached  as  white  as  snow.  The  skeins  are  next 
drawn  through  an  acid  solution  to  neutralize  the  chlo- 
ride. Another  boiling,  another  bleaching,  a  bath  of 
soap-suds,  and  the  final  rinsing,  complete  the  cleansing 
and  whitening  process.  Those  skeins  intended  for 
colored  threads  are  taken  to  the  dyeing  room  and 
placed  in  tanks  filled  with  suitably  prepared  dyeing 
solutions. 

From  the  bleaching  and  dyeing  departments  the 
skeins  of  thread  go  back  to  the  mill  to  be  wound  on  the 
bobbins,  and  from  the  bobbins  finally  on  the  small 
wooden  spools.  The  automatic  winding  machines  can 
be  regulated  to  wind  any  given  number  of  yards.  The 
small  spools  are  fastened  on  pivots,  the  thread  from 
the  bobbins  fastened  on  the  spools,  and  the  machines 


144  TEXTILES 

set  in  motion.  At  the  required  number  of  yards 
the  spools  stop  revolving.  The  ordinary  spool  of 
cotton  thread  contains  200  yards,  and  when  this  has 
been  wound  on,  the  thread  is  cut  with  a  knife  by  an 
attendant,  who  also  cuts  the  little  nick  in  the  rim  of 
the  spool  and  fastens  therein  the  end  of  the  thread. 
Thread  mills  commonly  print  their  own  labels,  and 
these  are  affixed  to  the  spools  by  special  machinery 
with  remarkable  rapidity.  From  the  labeling  machine 
the  spools  go  to  an  inspector,  who  examines  each  one 
for  imperfections,  and  any  that  are  found  faulty  are 
discarded.  When  packed  in  pasteboard  boxes  or  in 
cabinets  the  thread  is  ready  for  market. 

Thread  Numbers.  Spool  cotton  for  ordinary  use  is 
made  in  sizes  ranging  from  No.  8  coarse  to  No.  200 
fine.  In  cotton  yarn  numbering,  the  fineness  of  the 
spun  strand  is  denoted  by  the  number  of  hanks,  each 
containing  840  yards,  which  are  required  to  weigh 
one  pound,  as  illustrated  in  the  following  table: 


n      1  hank 

of  cotton  yarn  (     840 

yds.)     we 

'     10 

" 

" 

" 

(  8,400 

yds.) 

'    16 

tt 

tt 

it 

(13,440 

yds.)       ' 

1    30 

(t 

ft 

tt 

(25,200 

yds.)       ' 

'    50 

u 

a 

(i 

(42,000 

yds.) 

'  100 

If 

tt 

it 

(84,000 

yds.)        ' 

gh  1  Ib.  it  is  No.  1 
"  "  "  10 
"  "  "  16 
"  "  "  30 
"  "  "  50 
"  "  "  100 


The  early  manufactured  thread  was  three  cord,  and 
took  its  number  from  the  size  of  the  yarn  from  which 
it  was  made.  No.  60  yarn  made  No.  60  thread,  though 
in  point  of  fact  the  actual  caliber  of  No.  60  thread 
would  equal  No.  20  yarn,  being  three  No.  60  strands 


THREAD   AND   COTTON  FINISHING  145 

combined  together.  When  the  sewing  machine  came 
into  the  market  as  the  great  consumer  of  thread,  spool 
cotton  had  to  be  made  a  smoother  and  more  even 
product  than  had  previously  been  necessary  for  hand 
needles.  This  was  accomplished  by  using  six  strands 
instead  of  three,  the  yarns  being  twice  as  fine.  As  thread 
numbers  were  already  established,  they  were  not  altered 
for  the  new  article,  and  consequently  at  the  present  time 
No.  60  six-cord,  for  example,  and  No.  60  three-cord 
are  identical  in  size,  though  in  reality  No.  60  six-cord 
is  formed  of  No.  120  yarns.  It  is  relatively  smoother, 
more  even,  and  stronger  than  the  three-cord  grade. 
All  sizes  of  six-cord  threads  are  made  of  six  strands,  each 
of  the  latter  being  twice  as  fine  as  the  number  of  the 
thread  as  designated  by  the  label.  Three-cord  spool 
cotton  is  made  of  three  strands  of  yarn,  each  of  the 
same  number  as  the  thread. 

Sizing.  In  textile  manufacturing,  sizing  is  the 
process  of  strengthening  warp  yarns  by  coating  them 
with  a  preparation  of  starch,  flour,  etc.,  in  order  that 
they  may  withstand  the  weaving  process  without 
chafing  or  breaking.  The  operation  of  sizing  is  also 
often  resorted  to  in  finishing  certain  classes  of  cotton 
and  linen  fabrics,  which  are  sized  or  dressed  with  vari- 
ous mixtures  in  order  to  create  an  appearance  of  weight 
and  strength  where  these  qualities  do  not  exist,  or,  if 
present,  only  in  a  small  degree.  The  object  in  sizing 
warp  yarn  before  weaving  is  to  enable  that  process  to 
be  performed  with  the  minimum  of  threads  breaking. 
Judicious  sizing  adds  to  the  strength  of  the  yarn  by 


146  TEXTILES 

filling  up  the  spaces  between  the  fibers,  and  by  binding 
the  loose  ends  on  the  outside  of  the  thread  to  the  main 
part.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  a  number  of  ingre- 
dients are  used  in  the  size  preparation,  as  no  single 
material  used  alone  gives  satisfactory  results.  The 
filling  up  of  the  minute  spaces  in  the  yarns  and  the 
adhesion  of  the  fibers  produce  a  smooth  thread  with 
sufficient  hardness  to  resist  the  continual  chafing  of  the 
shuttles,  reeds,  and  harnesses  during  the  process  of  weav- 
ing. Flour  and  starch  in  a  liquid  state  are  used  for  this 
purpose,  but  owing  to  the  liability  to  mildew,  flour  is 
not  so  much  used  as  starch.  Both  of  these  materials, 
however,  make  the  yarn  brittle,  and  other  ingredients 
are  combined  with  them  to  overcome  the  brittleness. 
For  a  softener  on  heavy  weight  goods  nothing  has  been 
found  superior  to  good  beef  tallow.  On  light-weight 
goods  the  softener  giving  the  most  general  satisfaction 
is  paraffin. 

When  properly  made  the  size  preparation  is  a  smooth 
mass  of  uniform  consistence,  free  from  lumps  of  any 
kind,  and  from  all  sediment  and  odor.  Starch  —  the 
principal  material  which  gives  body  to  any  size  —  re- 
quires the  most  careful  treatment.  It  is  first  mixed 
with  cold  water  into  a  smooth,  creamy  milk,  which  is 
slowly  poured  into  the  necessary  quantity  of  boiling 
water  until  a  clear,  uniform  paste  is  formed.  Then  the 
softeners  are  added,  such  as  soaps,  oils,  and  animal 
fats;  next  a  small  amount  of  gelatine  or  glue  is  stirred 
in  and  some  form  of  preservative,  usually  chloride  of 
zinc  or  salicylic  acid.  The  mass  is  then  thoroughly 


THREAD   AND    COTTON   FINISHING 


147 


stirred  in  tilted  jacketed  kettles  with  mechanical  stirrers. 
The  size  may  be  applied  to  the  yarn  either  hot  or  cold. 
When  applied  hot  it  penetrates  into  the  interior,  filling 
up  every  space  between  the  fibers,  binding  all  together, 
and  forming  a  hard  coating  on  the  surface  of  the  thread. 
A  thorough  washing  or  steaming  serves  to  remove  all 
the  size  from  the  woven  fabric. 


FINISHING   ROOM 

Cotton  Finishing.  Cotton  fabrics,  like  other  textiles, 
after  leaving  the  loom  must  be  subjected  to  various 
finishing  processes  so  as  to  bring  them  into  commercial 
condition.  On  piece-dyed  goods  part  of  the  finishing 
is  done  before  and  part  after  the  dyeing  process.  Each 
class  of  fabrics  has  definite  finishing  processes.  In 
some  cases  weighting  materials  are  added  to  the  fabric 


148  TEXTILES 

so  as  to  hide  more  or  less  its  actual  construction.  Cotton 
fabrics  just  from  the  loom  present  a  soft  and  open 
structure,  more  so  than  other  textiles.  Therefore  it 
is  necessary  to  use  proper  finishing  materials  and  proc- 
esses which  will  fill  up  the  openings  or  interstices 
as  produced  in  the  fabric  by  the  interlacing  of  warp 
and  filling,  and  at  the  same  time  give  to  the  fabric  a 
certain  amount  of  stiffness.  Of  course  this  finish  will 
disappear  during  wear  or  washing,  it  having  been  im- 
parted to  the  fabric  to  bring  the  latter  into  a  salable 
condition. 

Cotton  fabrics  after  weaving  may  be  subjected  to 
the  following  sub-processes  of  finishing: 

Inspecting,  Burling  and  Trimming,  Bleaching,  Wash- 
ing, Scutching,  Drying. 

After  the  cloth  leaves  the  loom  it  is  brushed;  then  it 
passes  over  to  the  inspection  table  in  an  upward  reced- 
ing direction,  so  that  the  eye  of  the  operator  can  read- 
ily detect  imperfections.  The  ends  of  two  or  more 
pieces  as  coming  from  the  loom  are  sewed  into  a  string 
for  convenient  handling  in  the  bleaching. 

Bleaching.  The  object  of  bleaching  is  to  free  the 
cotton  from  its  natural  color.  The  ancient  method  of 
bleaching  by  exposure  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays 
and  frequent  wetting  has  been  superseded  by  a  more 
complicated  process  involving  the  use  of  various  chemi- 
cals. Pieces  of  cloth  are  tacked  together  (sewed)  to 
form  one  continuous  piece  of  from  three  to  one  thousand 
yards  in  length.  The  cloth  is  next  passed  over  hot 
cylinders  or  a  row  of  small  gas  jets  to  remove  all  the 


THREAD   AND   COTTON   FINISHING  149 

fine,  loose  down  from  the  surface.  The  goods  are  then 
washed  and  allowed  to  remain  in  a  wet  condition  for  a 
few  hours,  after  which  they  are  passed  through  milk  of 
lime  under  heavy  pressure,  followed  by  rinsing  in  clear 
water.  The  goods  are  next  "scoured"  in  water  acidu- 
lated with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  boiled  in  a  solution 
of  soda,  then  washed  as  before  in  clear  water.  Next 
they  are  chlorined  by  being  laid  in  a  stone  cistern  con- 
taining a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  and  allowed  to  re- 
main a  few  hours.  This  operation  requires  great  care  in 
the  preparation  of  the  chloride  of  lime,  for  if  the  small- 
est particle  of  undissolved  bleaching  powder  is  allowed 
to  come  in  contact  with  and  remain  upon  the  cloth  it 
is  liable  to  produce  holes.  The  goods  are  then  boiled 
for  four  or  five  hours  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
after  which  they  are  washed.  They  are  again  chlorined 
as  before  and  washed.  The  long  strips  are  finally 
scoured  in  hydrochloric  acid,  washed,  and  well  squeezed 
between  metal  rollers  covered  with  cloth.  After  squeez- 
ing and  drying,  the  cloth,  if  required  for  printing,  needs 
no  further  operation,  but  if  intended  to  be  marketed 
in. a  white  state,  it  must  be  finished,  that  is,  starched  or 
calendered. 

Starching.  The  starch  is  applied  to  the  cloth  by 
means  of  rollers  which  dip  into  a  vat  containing  the 
solution,  while  other  rollers  remove  the  excess.  Some- 
times the  cloth  is  artificially  weighted  with  fine  clay  or 
gypsum,  the  object  being  to  render  the  cloth  solid  in 
appearance. 

Calendering.     The    cloth   is   now   put   through    the 


150  TEXTILES 

calendering  machine,  the  object  of  which  is  to  give  a 
perfectly  smooth  and  even  surface,  and  sometimes  a 
superficial  glaze;  the  common  domestic  smoothing  iron 
may  be  regarded  as  a  form  of  a  calendering  utensil. 
The  cloth  is  first  passed  between  the  cylinders  of  a 
machine  two,  three,  or  four  times,  according  to  the  finish 
desired.  The  calender  finishes  may  be  classed  as  dull, 
luster,  glazed,  watered  or  moire,  and  embossed.  The 
calender  always  flattens  and  imparts  a  luster  to  the 
cloth  passed  through  it.  With  considerable  pressure 
between  smooth  rollers  a  soft,  silky  luster  is  given  by 
equal  flattening  of  all  the  threads.  By  passing  two  folds 
of  the  cloth  at  the  same  time  between  the  rollers  the 
threads  of  one  make  an  impression  upon  the  other,  and 
give  a  wiry  appearance.  The  iron  rollers  are  some- 
times made  hollow  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  steam 
or  gas  in  order  to  give  a  glaze  finish.  Embossing  is 
produced  by  passing  the  cloth  under  heated  metal  rollers 
upon  which  are  engraved  suitable  patterns,  the  effect 
of  which  is  the  reproduction  of  the  pattern  upon  the 
surface  of  the  cloth. 

Mercerizing.  This  is  a  process  of  treating  cotton 
yarn  or  fabrics  with  caustic  soda  and  sulphuric  acid 
whereby  they  are  made  stronger  and  heavier,  and 
given  a  silky  luster  and  feel.  The  luster  produced  upon 
cotton  is  due  to  two  causes,  the  change  in  the  structure 
of  the  fiber,  and  the  removing  of  the  outer  skin  of  the 
fiber.  The  swelling  of  the  fiber  makes  it  rounder,  so  that 
the  rays  of  light  as  they  fall  upon  the  surface  are  reflected 
instead  of  being  absorbed.  The  quality  and  degree  of 


THREAD   AND    COTTON   FINISHING  151 

luster  of  mercerized  cotton  fabrics  depends  largely 
upon  the  grade  of  cotton  used.  The  long-staple  Egyp- 
tian and  Sea  Island  cotton,  so  twisted  as  to  leave  the 
fibers  as  nearly  loose  and  parallel  as  possible,  show  the 
best  results.  If  the  yarn  is  singed  the  result  is  a  further 
improvement.  Yarns  and  fabrics  constructed  of  the 
ordinary  grades  of  cotton  cannot  be  mercerized  to 
advantage.  The  cost  of  producing  high-grade  mer- 
cerized yarn  is  about  three  times  that  of  an  unmercer- 
ized  yarn  of  the  same  count,  spun  from  the  commoner 
qualities  of  cotton. 

Mercerized  yarn  is  employed  in  almost  every  con- 
ceivable manner,  not  only  in  the  manufacture  of  half- 
silk  and  half-wool  fabrics,  and  in  lustrous  all-cotton 
tissues,  but  also  in  the  production  of  figures  and 
stripes  of  cotton  goods  having  non-lustrous  grounds. 
Mercerized  yarn  used  in  connection  with  silk  is  diffi- 
cult to  detect  except  by  an  expert  eye. 

Characteristics  of  a  good  piece  of  Cotton  Cloth. 
A  perfect  cotton  fiber  has  little  convolutions  in  it 
which  give  the  strong  twist  and  spring  to  a  good 
thread.  In  this  respect  the  Sea  Island  cotton  is  the 
best.  There  are  five  things  requisite  for  cotton  cloth 
to  be  good,  viz.: 

1.  The   cloth   must   be  made  of  good  fiber,  that  is 
ripe  and  long. 

2.  The   fiber   must   be  carefully  prepared.      All  the 
processes  must  be  well  performed  —  for   the  very  fine 
thread  fiber  must  be   combed   to   remove    poor    fiber. 
The  combing,  however,  is  not  always  done. 


152  TEXTILES 

3.  The  warp  and  woof  threads  must  be  in  good  pro- 
portion. 

4.  The  cloth  must  be  soft,  so  that  it  will  not  crease 
easily. 

5.  It   must   be   carefully  bleached  —  the    chemicals 
used  must  not  be  strong. 


CHAPTER  XII 
KNITTING 

THE  art  and  process  of  forming  fabrics  by  loop- 
ing a  single  thread,  either  by  hand  with  slender  wires 
or  by  means  of  a  machine  provided  with  hooked 
needles,  is  called  knitting.  Crocheting  is  an  analogous 
art,  but  differs  from  knitting  in  the  fact  that  the  sepa- 
rate loops  are  thrown  off  and  finished  by  hand  succes- 
sively, whereas  in  knitting  the  whole  series  of  loops 
which  go  to  form  one  length  or  round  are  retained  on 
one  or  more  needles,  while  a  new  series  is  being  formed 
on  a  separate  needle.  Netting  is  performed  by  knot- 
ting threads  into  meshes  that  cannot  be  unraveled, 
while  knitting  can  be  unraveled  and  the  same  thread 
applied  to  any  other  use.  Knitting  is  really  carried  on 
without  making  knots;  thus,  the  destruction  of  one 
loop  threatens  the  destruction  of  the  whole  web,  unless 
the  meshes  are  reunited. 

The  principle  of  knitting  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of 
weaving.  In  the  weaving  of  cloth  the  yarns  of  one 
system  cross  those  of  another  system  at  right  angles, 
thus  producing  a  solid,  firm  texture.  The  great  elasticity 
of  any  kind  of  texture  produced  by  knitting  is  the  chief 
feature  that  distinguishes  hosiery  from  woven  stuffs. 
The  nature  of  the  loop  formed  by  the  knitting  needle 

153 


154  TEXTILES 

favors  elongation  and  contraction  without  marring  in 
the  least  the  general  structure  of  the  goods.  Builders 
of  weavers'  looms  have  at  times  endeavored  to  secure 
this  elastic  effect  by  certain  manipulations  of  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  loom,  but  as  yet  nothing  approaching  the  prod- 
uct of  the  knitter  has  been  made.  The  elastic  feature 
of  a  knitted  texture  renders  it  peculiarly  adapted  for  all 
classes  and  kinds  of  undergarments,  for  it  not  only  fits 
the  body  snugly,  but  expands  more  readily  than  any 
other  fabric  of  similar  weight. 

Knitting  Machines.  There  are  various  machines 
for  knitting.  The  circular  knitting  machine  produces 
a  circular  web  of  various  degrees  of  fineness,  and  in 
sizes  ranging  from  a  child's  stocking  to  a  man's  No.  50 
undershirt.  The  circular  fabric  made  in  this  manner 
has  to  be  cut  up  and  joined  together  by  some  method 
to  make  a  complete  garment.  The  knitting  frame  for 
producing  fashioned  goods  makes  a  flat  strip,  narrowing 
and  widening  it  at  certain  places  so  as  to  conform  to  the 
shape  of  the  foot,  leg,  or  body.  These  strips  then  have 
to  be  joined  by  sewing  or  knitting  to  form  a  garment. 
Fashioning  machines  are  indispensable  for  knitting  the 
Niantic  and  French  foot,  and  also  for  the  production 
of  stripes,  fancy  openwork,  and  lace  hosiery. 

All  plain  machines  of  any  class  produce  only  plain 
knitted  fabrics,  while  ribbed  machines  make  only  ribbed 
fabrics.  Still,  many  garments  in  their  make-up  include 
both  kinds  of  knitting;  therefore,  many  machines  produce 
only  certain  parts  of  particular  garments.  In  the  case 
of  half-hose  there  is  frequently  a  ribbed  top,  or  in 


KNITTING 


155 


KNITTING    MACHINE    FOR    HOSIERY 


156  TEXTILES 

underwear  a  ribbed  cuff,  and  these  may  be  made  either 
of  circular  web  or  full  fashioned.  In  each  case  the 
ribbed  portion  is  first  knit  and  then  transferred  to  a 
plain  machine,  and  being  placed  upon  the  needles  is 
worked  on  to  the  rest  of  the  garment.  In  some  in- 
stances the  heel  is  made  by  the  machine  working  the 
leg,  though  there  are  numerous  knitters  specially 
designed  for  turning  out  only  this  particular  part. 

Among  other  knitting  machines  in  modern  use  are  the 
drawers  machine;  machines  for  hose  and  half  hose  with 
apparatus  for  making  the  instep,  finishing  off  the  toe, 
splicing  or  thickening  the  heels,  etc.;  machines  for  pro- 
ducing the  bottoms  or  soles  of  hose  separately,  and  also 
the  instep  separately;  circular  stocking  machines  for 
producing  a  tubular  web  afterwards  cut  into  suitable 
lengths  for  all  varieties  of  hose;  circular  sleeve  ma- 
chines, circular  body  machines,  as  well  as  circular  web 
machines  for  making  both  body  and  sleeves  of  under- 
shirts, jerseys,  sweaters,  etc.  Special  machines  •  are 
also  made  for  knitting  both  plain  and  ribbed  plaited 
goods,  that  is,  with  both  sides  wool  while  the  center  is 
of  cotton,  or  with  a  silk  or  worsted  face  on  one  side  and 
the  back  of  an  inferior  yarn.  In  the  form  of  auxiliary 
appliances  are  produced  many  kinds  of  stitching  ma- 
chines; circular  latch-needle  machines  for  plain  ribbed, 
mock  seam,  and  striped  goods;  steam  presses;  hose 
rolling  machines;  hose  cutting  and  welting  machines, 
and  many  other  accessories  to  hosiery  manufacture. 

At  present  fully  one-third  of  the  knit  underwear 
used  in  this  country  is  of  the  ribbed  description.  It 


KNITTING 


157 


KNITTING    MACHINE    FOR   UNDERWEAR 

is  made  in  all  the  materials  that  the  older  flat  goods  are 
composed  of,  including  silk,  silk  mixtures,  linen,  wool, 
lisle,  and  cotton.  Rib  work  is  ordinarily  stronger  and 


158  TEXTILES 

more  lasting  than  plain.  It  is  also  invaluable  for 
many  purposes  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  contract 
and  expand  in  the  direction  of  the  circumference  with- 
out altering  its  length.  This  feature  makes  it  indis- 
pensable for  tops  to  socks  and  wrist  work  for  shirts, 
mittens,  gloves,  etc.,  and  for  the  production  of  heavy 
garments  such  as  cardigans  and  sweaters.  The  expense 
of  knitting  rib  work  is  higher  than  plain  knitting,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  machines  cannot  turn  out  so  great 
a  quantity  within  a  given  time. 

The  formation  of  the  rib  in  knitted  goods  is  unique 
in  its  principle.  The  effect  is  produced  by  reversing 
the  stitch.  In  place  of  making  the  stitch  work  appear 
entirely  upon  one  side  of  the  fabric,  as  in  plain  work, 
the  needles  are  so  arranged  that  every  alternate  row, 
or  two  rows  alternately,  are  reversed,  thus  making 
both  sides  alike.  Plain  work  is  done  with  a  single 
bank  of  needles,  while  rib  work  requires  two  banks, 
the  function  of  the  second  one  being  to  pull  and  loop 
the  yarn  in  an  opposite  direction,  thus  producing  a 
thicker  and  more  elastic  web. 

Double  work  in  knitting  consists  merely  in  running 
two  threads  where  one  is  commonly  used.  The  work 
is  done  readily  and  with  but  little  extra  cost  for  labor. 
Coarser  and  heavier  needles  are  required,  also  a  wider 
gauge  for  the  needle  cylinder.  Fancy  effects  in  double 
work  are  produced  by  running  two  colors  instead  of 
one.  The  tendency  is  for  one  thread  to  twine  about 
the  other,  thus  making  attractive  double-and-twist 
work.  Lumbermen's  socks  and  like  goods  are  often 


KNITTING  159 

knitted  on  this  plan,  though  for  the  most  part  double 
work  is  for  the  heels,  toes,  and  soles  of  ordinary  hose. 

Stripe  Knitting.  The  process  of  striping  knitted 
fabrics  is  accomplished  automatically  by  a  system  of 
changing  the  yarns  when  delivered  by  the  feeds.  Cir- 
cular machines  knitting  a  tubular  web  cannot  be  util- 
ized for  this  purpose,  hence  the  work  is  done  on 
fashioning  or  stocking  frames.  It  has  only  been  within 
recent  years  that  makers  of  knitting  machinery  have 
been  able  to  offer  machines  on  which  more  than  one 
kind  of  yarn  could  be  knit  at  one  time.  There  are  now 
in  use,  however,  machines  that  will  readily  knit  several 
colors  of  yarn  at  the  same  time. 

Knitting  Cotton.  A  variety  of  loosely  twisted,  four- 
ply  cotton  yarn,  dyed  in  various  plain  and  mixed  colors, 
employed  for  knitting  hosiery,  tidies,  mats,  etc.,  by 
hand.  It  is  numbered  from  8,  coarse,  to  20,  fine,  and 
commonly  put  up  sixteen  balls  in  a  box,  each  box 
containing  two  pounds,  manufacturer's  weight. 

Knitting  Silk.  A  loosely  twisted  silk  thread  of 
domestic  manufacture  employed  for  knitting  mittens, 
stockings,  and  other  articles  by  hand.  It  is  also  much 
used  for  crochet  work.  Knitting  silk  is  put  up  in  the 
form  of  balls,  each  containing  one-half  ounce  of  thread. 
It  is  made  in  but  two  sizes,  No.  300,  coarse,  and  No. 
500,  fine;  each  ball  of  the  former  number  contains  150 
yards  of  silk;  of  the  latter  250  yards.  No.  500  is  manu- 
factured only  in  white,  cream,  and  black;  the  No.  300  is 
fast  dyed  in  a  great  variety  of  colors. 

Hosiery  Manufacture.     According  to  the  particular 


160  TEXTILES 

method  by  which  socks  and  stockings  are  made,  of 
whatever  kind,  quality,  or  material,  they  are  classed 
as  cut  goods,  seamless,  or  full  fashioned.  Of  the  three 
methods  of  manufacturing  the  first  named  is  the  least 
expensive.  Cut  goods  are  made  of  round  webbing 
knitted  on  what  is  called  a  circular  knitting  machine. 
The  web  has  the  appearance  of  a  long  roll  of  cloth 
about  the  width  of  a  sock  or  stocking  when  pressed 
flat.  The  first  operation  consists  in  cutting  off  pieces 
the  length  of  the  stocking  desired,  these  lengths, 
of  course,  being  the  same  (unshaped)  from  end  to 
end.  The  shaping  of  the  leg  is  effected  either  by  cut- 
ting out  enough  of  the  stocking  from  the  calf  to  the 
heel  to  allow  part  to  be  sewn  up  and  shaped  to  fit  the 
ankle,  or  by  shrinking.  In  the  heeling  room  where 
the  pieces  next  go,  the  cutters  are  furnished  with 
gauges  or  patterns  that  indicate  just  where  to  make  a 
slit  for  the  insertion  of  the  heel,  generally  of  a  different 
color.  When  the  heel  is  sewn  in,  the  stocking  begins 
to  assume  its  rightful  shape.  The  toe  is  now  put  on 
and  the  stocking  is  practically  finished.  In  the  case 
of  socks  the  final  operation  consists  in  attaching  the 
ribbed  top,  which  tends  to  draw  the  upper- part  of  the 
leg  together,  thus  causing  it  to  assume  a  better  shape. 
The  final  work  includes  scouring,  dyeing,  and  shaping. 
The  cost  of  making  cut  goods  is  less  by  a  few  cents  per 
dozen  than  when  knit  seamless.  While  some  very 
creditable  hose  are  produced  in  this  way,  yet  the  ex- 
istence of  the  heavy  seam  is  an  objection  which  con- 
fines them  to  the  poorest  class  of  trade.  Cut  goods  are 


KNITTING  161 

made   in   all   sizes   and    kinds    for   men,    women,    and 
children. 

Seamless  hose  are  made  on  a  specially  constructed 
machine  which  produces  the  entire  stocking,  but  leaves 
the  toe  piece  to  be  joined  together  by  a  looping  attach- 
ment. On  half-hose  the  leg  is  made  the  same  size 
down  to  the  ankle,  but  on  ladies'  hose  the  stocking  is 
shaped  somewhat  in  the  machine.  Seamless  hose  are 
not,  strictly  speaking,  entirely  seamless,  inasmuch  as 
all  stockings  made  on  a  circular  knitting  machine  must 
have  a  seam  somewhere.  There  must  be  a  beginning 
and  an  ending.  In  the  case  of  the  stocking  the  ending 
is  at  the  toe,  and  the  opening  left  can  only  be  closed  with 
a  seam.  In  some  mills  this  opening  is  automatically 
stitched  together  on  special  machines;  in  others,  girls 
do  it  by  hand  with  needle  and  thread.  Neither  by 
machine  nor  handwork  can  the  opening  be  closed  with 
exactly  the  same  stitch  as  that  made  by  the  needles  of 
the  power  knitter.  However,  the  seam  is  of  small  pro- 
portions, and  when  the  goods  are  scoured,  pressed,  and 
finished  the  presence  of  the  seam  is  a  minor  item,  as  it 
neither  incommodes  the  wearer  nor  mars  the  appearance 
of  the  stocking.  Seamless  goods  are  made  in  a  great 
variety  of  qualities,  ranging  from  cotton  half-hose  at 
fifty  cents  per  dozen  to  the  fine  worsted  stockings  at 
$6.00  per  dozen.  A  notable  and  very  commendable 
feature  of  seamless  hose  is  the  socket-like  shape  of  the 
heel,  which  fits  that  portion  of  the  foot  as  though  really 
fitted  to  it.  As  far  as  comfort  and  fit  are  concerned, 
the  manufacture  of  seamless  hosiery  has  now  reached 


162  TEXTILES 

such  a  degree  of  perfection  as  to  bring  it  second  only  to 
the  full-fashioned  variety. 

Full-fashioned  hose  are  produced  by  means  of  compli- 
cated and  expensive  knitting  frames,  which  automatically 
drop  the  requisite  number  of  stitches  at  the  ankle  so  as 
gradually  to  narrow  the  web  down  and  give  the  stocking 
the  natural  shape  of  the  leg.  The  toe  is  produced  in  the 
same  way,  and  the  shaping  of  heel  and  gusset  is  brought 
about  in  like  manner.  Hence,  the  goods  are  called  full- 
fashioned,  because  so  fashioned  as  to  conform  to  the  pro- 
portions of  the  leg  and  foot.  Hose  and  underwear  made 
by  this  method  are  knit  in  flat  strips  and  then  seamed 
either  by  hand  or  machine.  Generally  special  machines 
are  used,  which  take  up  and  complete  the  selvedges, 
thus  avoiding  objectionable  seams  with  raw  edges. 

The  knitting  frames  used  for  making  full-fashioned 
goods  are  large,  intricate,  expensive,  and  slow  in  opera- 
tion; they  are  difficult  to  keep  in  order  and  require 
skilful  operators.  The  largest  ones  knit  from  fourteen 
to  eighteen  stockings  at  once,  using  as  many  as  four 
threads  of  different  colors  in  the  production  of  patterns. 
The  first  operation  consists  in  knitting  the  leg  down  to 
the  foot;  then  the  legs  are  transferred  by  expert  work- 
men to  another  frame  which  knits  the  foot.  Next  they 
go  to  another  department  where,  with  the  aid  of  a 
special  looping  machine,  the  heels  and  toes  are  stitched 
together.  Then  the  stockings  or  socks  are  handed  over 
to  expert  women  operators,  who  seam  up  the  legs  on  a 
machine  especially  adapted  for  the  purpose.  After 
being  sorted  they  are  taken  to  be  dyed,  boarded,  stitched, 


KNITTING  163 

dried,  and  finally  subjected  to  heat  and  pressure  to 
give  them  a  finished  appearance.  It  usually  requires 
two  weeks  from  the  time  the  manufacturing  operations 
begin,  for  a  stocking  to  emerge  from  the  factory  in 
a  finished  form.  Full-fashioned  hose  are  made  in  all 
shades  and  grades  of  silk  and  cotton,  in  lisle  thread, 
and  in  all  kinds  of  cashmere,  merino,  and  woolen  goods. 
They  are  likewise  knitted  plain,  ribbed,  and  with  fancy 
stripes  and  embroidery  effects.  In  the  United  States 
there  are  numerous  important  plants  engaged  in  the 
production  of  full-fashioned  goods,  while  large  quantities 
are  annually  imported  from  Germany  and  France. 

Finishing  Process.  When  socks  and  stockings  are 
taken  off  of  the  knitting  machines  they  present  an  un- 
finished appearance,  being  loose,  puckered,  dirty,  and 
generally  shapeless.  Scouring,  dyeing,  shaping,  and 
pressing  serve  to  improve  their  looks,  and  these  finish- 
ing operations  constitute  a  distinct  branch  of  the  in- 
dustry. While  still  in  a  moist  state  the  hose  are  shaped. 
This  is  effected  by  the  use  of  forming-boards  made  of 
wood  and  about  one-half  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The 
sock  or  stocking  is  carefully  stretched  over  the  "form" 
while  damp,  and  then  placed  in  a  heated  chamber  and 
allowed  to  dry.  The  goods  assume  the  shape  of  the 
rooden  "form,"  and  will  always  hold  it  if  the  work 
ias  been  carefully  and  thoroughly  done.  After  they 
have  been  taken  from  the  drying  chamber  and  the 
>oards  removed  the  hose  are  pressed  between  heavy 
letal  plates  or  rollers,  looked  over  for  defects,  and 
when  boxed  or  bundled  are  ready  for  market. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
LACE 

Lace.  Lace  is  the  name  applied  to  an  ornamental 
open  work  of  threads  of  flax,  cotton,  silk,  gold,  or 
silver,  and  occasionally  of  mohair  or  aloe  fiber.  The 
latter  are  used  by  the  peasants  of  Italy  and  Spain. 

Lace  consists  of  two  parts,  the  ground  and  the 
flower.  The  threads  may  be  looped,  plaited,  or  twisted 
in  one  of  three  ways.  First,  with  a  needle,  when  the 
work  is  known  as  "needlepoint  lace."  Second,  when 
bobbins,  pins,  and  a  pillow  or  cushion  are  used;  this 
is  called  "pillow  lace."  Third,  by  machinery,  when 
imitations  of  both  point  and  pillow  lace  patterns  are 
produced. 

Special  patterns  for  these  laces  date  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  early  produc- 
tions of  the  art  had  some  analogy  to  weaving;  the 
patterns  were  stiff  and  geometrical,  sometimes  cut  out 
of  linen  or  separately  sewed  and  applied  to  the  meshed 
surface,  but  more  frequently  they  were  darned  in,  the 
stitches  being  counted  in,  as  in  tapestry.  This  kind 
was  known  as  darned  netting.  With  the  development 
of  the  renaissance  of  art,  free  flowing  patterns  and 
figure  subjects  were  introduced  and  worked  in. 

Whether   of   needlepoint  or   pillow   make,   both   the 

164 


LACE  165 

ornament  and  the  ground  are  produced  by  the  lace 
maker.  Needlepoint  is  made  by  first  stitching  the  net 
with  thread  along  the  outline  of  a  pattern  drawn  on 
paper  or  parchment,  thus  producing  a  skeleton  thread 
pattern.  This  threadwork  serves  as  a  foundation  for  the 
different  figures  which  are  formed  in  the  lace. 

Bobbin  or  pillow  lace  more  nearly  resembles  weaving. 
The  threads  are  fixed  upon  a  circular  or  square  pillow, 
placed  variously  to  suit  the  methods  of  manufacture 
in  vogue  in  different  countries.  The  object  of  using  the 
pillow  is  to  prevent  too  much  handling  of  the  lace. 
One  end  of  each  thread  is  fastened  to  the  cushion  with 
a  pin,  the  main  supply  of  thread  being  twined  around 
a  small  bobbin  of  wood,  bone,  or  ivory.  The  threads 
are  twisted  and  plaited  together  by  the  lace  maker,  who 
throws  the  bobbins  over  and  under  each  other.  The 
operation  is  fairly  simple,  since  children  of  eight  or  nine 
years  of  age  can  be  trained  to  it  successfully.  It  de- 
mands, however,  considerable  dexterity  with  the  fingers. 

The  design  for  pillow  lace  must  of  course  be  adapted 
to  the  technical  requirements  of  the  process,  and  cannot 
therefore  be  the  same  as  one  for  needlepoint,  which 
has  a  better  appearance  and  greater  strength  than 
pillow  lace.  For  this  reason  it  was  in  former  times 
generally  preferred  for  wear  on  occasions  of  state.  On 
the  other  hand,  pillow  lace  has  the  quality  of  charming 
suppleness,  and  for  use  in  mantillas,  veils,  and  fichus 
it  is  better  than  needlepoint,  lending  itself  with  delicate 
softness  and  graceful  flexibility  as  a  covering  to  the 
head  and  shoulders  of  women. 


166  TEXTILES 

LACE  TERMS  DEFINED 

Alengon  (Point  d').  —  Fine  needlepoint  lace  with  the  ground  of  double- 
twist  thread  in. a  semi-net  effect.  Is  usually  worked  with  horse- 
hair on  the  edges  to  give  firmness  to  the  cordonnet.  Called 
after  the  city  in  France  where  it  is  made. 

Allover.  —  Name  for  all  wide  laces  used  for  flouncing,  yokes,  and  entire 
waists.  Usually  the  lace  is  over  eighteen  inches  in  width. 

American  Laces.  —  A  general  term  formerly  used  to  distinguish  lace 
made  in  this  country,  the  development  of  the  industry  having 
now  rendered  the  term  nearly  obsolete. 

Angleterre  (Point  d').  —  Fine  Brussels  pillow  lace,  distinguished  by  a 
rib  of  raised  and  plaited  threads  worked  in  the  lace.  Shown  in 
floral,  ornithological,  and  geometrical  designs. 

Antique.  — Hand-made  pillow  lace  of  heavy  linen  thread  in  a  large,  open, 
rectangular  knotted  mesh.  Used  for  curtains,  bed  sets,  draperies. 

Antwerp.  —  Bobbin  lace,  resembling  early  Alengon.  Shows  a  "pot" 
—  that  is,  a  vase  or  basket  effect  —  in  the  design. 

Applique.  — Any  lace  in  which  the  body  and  the  design  are  mad§  sepa- 
rately. The  body  is  usually  silk  and  the  design  cotton  or  linen. 

Applique  Brussels.  —  Name  sometimes  given  to  Brussels  applique"  laces. 

Arabe  (Point  d').  —  Coarse  bobbin  lace  made  in  Belgium  and  France 
as  well  as  Arabia.  Shows  a  large,  bold  pattern,  cable  edged,  and 
is  almost  invariably  in  a  deep  e*cru  tone.  Used  for  curtains  and 
draperies. 

Arabian.  —  Same  as  above. 

Argentine.  —  Similar  to  Alengon,  the  mesh  being  a  trifle  larger. 

Arras.  —  Very  strong,  inexpensive,  white  bobbin  lace,  of  simple 
pattern,  somewhat  resembling  Mechlin.  Distinguished  by  its 
light,  single  thread  ground.  Named  after  the  city  in  France 
where  it  is  made. 

Aurillac.  —  Somewhat  resembles  Angleterre.  Bobbin  lace  made  in 
Aurillac,  France. 

Auvergne.  —  Any  kind  of  bobbin  lace  made  in  Auvergne,  France. 
Different  makes  and  patterns. 

Ave  Maria.  —  A  narrow  edging  lace. 

Baby  Lace.  —  Light  and  simple  edging  lace  made  in  England. 


LACE  167 

Battenberg.  —  Same  as  Renaissance.  Designs  confined  to  flower 
patterns. 

Bayeux.  —  Bobbin  lace,  usually  an  imitation  of  Spanish  point. 
Also  a  black,  rich  lace  made  in  large  pieces  for  shawls,  head 
scarfs,  etc. 

Binche.  —  Fine  pillow  lace,  without  cordonnet.  Ground  resembles 
a  spider-web  with  small  dots.  Made  in  Binche,  Belgium. 

Bisette.  - —  Coarse,  narrow  French  peasant  lace  in  simple  designs. 
Name  often  applied  to  cheap  bordering  laces. 

Blonde.  —  So  called,  being  originally  a  bobbin  lace  made  of  unbleached 
silk,  though  now  shown  in  black,  white,  and  colors.  Made  with 
two  different  sizes  of  thread;  fine  thread  for  the  ground,  coarse 
for  the  design.  Usually  takes  some  floral  form.  Very  lustrous. 

Bobbin  Lace.  —  Imitation  of  pillow  lace.  Made  in  England  and 
France. 

Bobbinet.  —  The  same. 

Bone  Lace.  —  An  obsolete  term  once  given  to  Honiton  bobbin  lace. 

Bone  Point  Lace.  —  Applied  to  laces  having  no  regular  ground  or 
mesh,  such  as  Renaissance. 

Border  Lace.  —  Practically  synonymous  with  edging. 

Bourdon.  —  A  machine  lace  made  of  both  silk  and  cotton.  Show 
scroll-like  patterns  cable-edged  on  a  regular  mesh.  Usually 
dyed  black,  but  sometimes  bleached.  The  outline  is  of  a  heavy 
lustrous  thread.  Used  chiefly  for  dress  trimming  and  millinery. 

Brettone.  —  Cheap  narrow  edging. 

Bride  Lace.  —  Lace  with  the  pattern  connected  with  brides.  Same 
as  bone  point  lace. 

Brides.  —  Slender  threads  connecting  different  parts  of  a  pattern. 

Brussels  Net.  —  Plain  net  made  originally  in  Brussels,  but  now  pro- 
duced in  all  lace  manufacturing  countries. 

Brussels  Pillow.  —  Fine  pillow  lace  with  the  patterns  joined  together 
by  little  loops  on  their  edges. 

Brussels  Point.  —  Shows  an  open  pattern,  made  partly  in  open,  partly 
in  closed,  stitch,  giving  the  appearance  of  shading. 

Carrickmacross.  —  Tiny  Irish  cambric  drawn  work,  applique  on  net. 

Cartisane.  —  Guipure  or  passementerie  made  with  thin  silk  or  gilt- 
covered  strips  of  parchment. 


168  TEXTILES 

Chantilly.  —  Pillow  lace  very  similar  to  blonde.  Comes  from  Chan- 
tilly,  France.  Made  in  both  silk  and  cotton  and  usually  seen  in 
black.  Non-lustrous,  and  looks  as  if  made  from  black  linen  thread. 

Chiffon  Lace.  —  Chiffon  embroidered  in  twist  silk. 

Cluny.  —  Coarse-thread  bobbin  lace,  made  in  both  linen  and  cotton. 
Shows  a  close-stitch  pattern  darned  on  an  open  ground.  Used 
for  dress  trimmings  and  the  manufacture  of  curtains. 

Cork  Lace.  —  A  sweeping  term  used  to  designate  all  laces  of  Irish  make. 

Cotton  Lace.  —  All  lace  made  of  cotton. 

Craponne.  —  Cheap,  stout  thread  furniture  guipure. 

Crochet  Lace.  —  Any  point  lace  made  with  the  crochet  hook. 

Darned  Lace.  —  A  comprehensive  term  taking  in  all  net  effects  with 
the  pattern  applied  in  needlework. 

Devonshire  Lace.  —  Lace  made  in  this  part  of  England,  and  especially 
Honiton  imitation. 

Dieppe.  —  Fine  needlepoint  lace  made  in  Dieppe,  France.  Resembles 
Valenciennes.  Made  with  a  regular  ground  of  squares  of  small 
meshes  alternating  with  open  squares  upon  which  the  pattern 
is  applied  in  close  stitch. 

Duchesse.  —  Pillow  lace  with  fine  net  ground  with  the  patterns  in 
raised  work,  volants,  and  the  like. 

Dutch  Lace.  —  Practically  a  coarse  Valenciennes. 

English  Point.  —  See  Angleterre. 

Escurial.  —  Heavy  silk  lace  made  in  imitation  of  Rose  point.  Pat- 
terns outlined  with  cable  edge. 

Esprit  (Point  d').  —  Dotted  bobbinet  with  the  dots  either  singly  or 
in  clusters. 

Filet  Lace.  —  Any  lace  made  with  a  square  mesh  net. 

Flemish  Point.  —  Needlepoint  lace  made  in  Flanders. 

Footing.  —  Simple  insertion  of  Brussels  net  from  one  to  three  inches 
in  width. 

Galloon.  —  Irregular  band  with  a  fancy  edge.  Entire  piece  often  in 
zig-zag  or  scallop  form. 

Gaze  (Point  de). —  Flemish  point  lace  resembling  point  d'Alencon, 
though  much  softer,  being  without  horsehair. 

Gene  (Point  de).  —  Openwork  embroidery  made  on  a  wool  ground 
which  is  afterwards  eaten  away  by  acid. 


LACE  169 

Genoa.  —  Heavy  lace  made  of  aloe  fiber.     Another  name  for  macrame. 

Gimp.  —  See  Guipure. 

Gold  Lace.  —  Gimp  or  braid  covered  with  gold  or  imitation  gold  thread. 

Grammont.  —  White  pillow  lace  used  for  shawls  and  the  like.  Black 
silk  lace  nearly  resembling  blonde. 

Guipure.  —  Fancy  trimming  of  wire  cord  whipped  round  with  silk 
or  cotton  threads,  and  the  small  patterns  stitched  together. 

Guipure  d'Art.  —  Linen  net  upon  which  raised  intersecting  patterns 
are  worked. 

Guipure  de  Flanders.  —  A  pillow  lace  made  separately,  having  flowers 
connected  by  bars  and  brides. 

Hand  Embroidered.  —  Heavy  point  lace,  usually  of  Plauen  manufac- 
ture, with  fancy  floral  or  other  figures  embroidered  on  the  design. 

Honiton.  —  English  bobbin  lace,  famed  for  the  beauty  of  its  designs. 
Named  for  the  city  where  it  was  first  manufactured.  Now  made 
in  Belgium,  Holland,  and  France.  Sprays  sometimes  made 
separately,  and  then  worked  on  a  net  —  Honiton  applique*. 

Honiton  Braid.  —  Narrow  machine-made  braid  of  ornamental  oval 
figures  connected  by  narrow  bars.  Used  for  collars,  handker- 
chiefs, and  tidies. 

Honiton  Guipure.  —  Large  flower-pattern  lace  on  very  open  ground, 
the  sprays  held  together  with  brides  or  bars. 

Imitation  Lace.  —  A  term  used  to  designate  any  machine-made  lace 
in  contrast  with  hand-made. 

Insertion.  —  Any  narrow  lace  with  a  plain  edge  on  either  side  that 
admits  of  its  being  inserted  in  a  fabric. 

Irish  Crochet.  —  Heavy  hand-made  lace,  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
and  distinctness  of  its  patterns,  and  the  startling  whiteness  of 
the  linen  thread  used  in  its  manufacture. 

Irish  Lace.  —  A  general  term  used  to  designate  all  lace  made  by  the 
Irish  peasantry. 

Irish  Point.  —  Hybrid  combination  of  applique*,  cut  work,  and  em- 
broidery on  net  with  elaborate  needle  stitching  in  the  higher  grades. 

Irish  Trimming.  -^  Simple,  woven  lace,  used  on  white  wear. 

Knotted  Lace.  —  Frequently  referred  to  as  knotting.  A  fancy  weave 
of  twisted  and  knotted  threads  in  close  imitation  of  some  old 
hand  laces. 


170  TEXTILES 

Lille  (Also  Lile). —  French  lace  named  after  the  town  where  it  is 
made.  Somewhat  resembles  Mechlin.  Shows  a  very  clear, 
light  ground  and  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  simple  thread  laces. 

Limerick  Lace.  —  A  form  of  embroidery  on  net  or  muslin. 

LuxeuiL  —  A  general  term  for  hand-made  laces  of  Luxeuil,  France. 
More  specifically  those  of  a  stout,  heavy  nature.  Used  for 
tidies,  curtains,  draperies. 

Macrame.  —  Knotted  hand-made  lace,  made  of  a  very  heavy 
cord. 

Shown  principally  in  geometrical  designs.    Very  popular  in  deep 
e"cru. 

Maline.  —  Fine  silk  net.  Sometimes  also  applied  to  Mechlin  lace 
with  a  diamond  mesh. 

Maltese.  —  Coarse  machine-made  cotton  lace,  resembling  torchon. 
Has  no  regular  ground,  the  patterns  being  usually  connected  with 
heavy  stitch  work. 

Mechlin.  —  Light  pillow  lace  with  the  pattern  outlined  by  a  fine  but 
very  distinct  thread  or  cord.  Real  Mechlin  generally  has  the 
ground  pattern  woven  together,  the  latter  running  largely  to 
flowers,  buds,  etc. 

Medallion.  —  Single,  detached  pattern. 

Medici.  —  Special  kind  of  torchon  edging,  with  one  edge  scalloped. 

Melange.  —  Hand-made  silk  pillow  lace,  showing  a  combination  of 
conventional  Chantilly  with  Spanish  designs. 

Mignonette.  —  Light  bobbin  lace,  made  in  narrow  strips.  Resembles 
tulle. 

Miracourt.  —  Sprig  effects  of  bobbin-lace  applied  on  net  ground. 

Mexican  Drawnwork.  —  Little  round  medallions  either  single  or  in 
strips,  the  threads  drawn  to  form  a  cartwheel.  Mexican  and 
Teneriffe  drawnwork  are  practically  the  same.  Machine  imi- 
tations made  in  Nottingham,  Calais,  and  St.  Gall. 

Motif.  —  See  Medallion. 

Nanduly.  —  South  American  fiber-lace,  made  by  needle  in  small 
squares,  which  are  afterward  joined  together.  Design  very 
beautiful  and  of  remarkable  durability. 

Needlepoint  Lace.  —  See  Point  Lace. 

Normandy  Lace.  —  See  Valenciennes, 


LACE  171 

Nottingham.  —  A  general  term  including  all  the  machine-made  laces 
turned  out  in  that  great  lace-producing  center  of  England. 

Oriental  Lace,  —  Really  an  embroidery,  being  produced  on  the  Schiffli 
machine,  the  pattern  being  then  either  cut  or  eaten  out.  Also 
applied  to  point  d'Arabe  and  certain  filet  effects. 

Oyah  Lace.  —  A  crocheted  guipure  shown  in  ornate  patterns. 

Passementerie.  —  A  decorative  edging  or  trimming,  especially  gimp 
or  braid. 

Picots.  —  Infinitesimal  loops  on  brides  and  other  strands. 

Pillow  Lace  (Bobbin  Lace}.  —  Made  on  a  pillow  with  bobbins  and 
pins.  Machine-made  imitations  retain  the  name. 

Plauen.  —  Applied  to  all  laces  emanating  from  that  section  of  Sax- 
ony and  including  imitations  of  nearly  all  point  laces,  which  are 
embroidered  on  a  wool  ground,  this  being  afterward  dissolved  in 
acid  and  the  cotton  or  silk  design  left  intact. 

Point  de  Gaze.  —  Fine  gauze-like  needle-lace. 

Point  d'Irelande.  —  Coarse  machine  lace,  made  in  imitation  of  real 
Venetian  point. 

Point  de  Milan.  —  A  variety  of  guipure,  having  a  ground  of  small 
meshes,  and  a  pattern  consisting  of  bold,  flowing  scroll  devices. 

Point  de  Paris.  —  A  variety  of  cheap  machine  lace,  cotton,  of  simple 
design. 

Point  Kant.  —  Flemish  pillow  lace,  with  a  net  ground  and  the  design 
running  largely  to  "pot"  effects  —  pot  lace. 

Point  Lace.  —  Lace  made  by  hand  with  needle  and  single  thread. 
Needlepoint  the  same.  Point  d'Alenc,on,  point  de  Venise,  etc., 
are  all  variations  of  point  lace  and  will  be  found  classified  under 
their  initials. 

Point  Plat.  —  Point  lace  without  raised  design. 

Renaissance.  —  Modern  lace,  made  of  narrow  tape  or  braid  formed 
into  patterns,  held  together  by  brides,  the  brides  forming  sub- 
sidiary designs.  Battenberg  is  the  same  thing. 

Repousse.  —  Applied  to  the  design,  being  a  pattern  that  has  the  effect 
of  being  stamped  in. 

Rococo.  —  Italian  lace,  bearing  the  rococo  design. 

Rose  Point.  —  See  Venetian  point. 

Seaming  Lace.  —  Narrow,  openwork  insertion. 


172  TEXTILES 

Seville.  —  Variety  of  torchon. 

Spanish  Lace.  —  A  comprehensive  term.  Convent-made,  needlepoint 
lace.  Cut  drawnwork  effects,  also  convent-made.  Needle- 
point lace  in  large  squares.  Black  silk  lace  in  floral  designs. 

Spanish  Point.  —  Ancient  embroidery  of  gold,  silver,  and  silk  passe- 
menterie. 

Swiss  Lace.  —  Swiss  embroidered  net  in  imitation  of  Brussels. 

Tambour.  —  Variety  of  Limerick. 

Tape  Lace.  —  Hand-made  needle  lace,  similar  to  Renaissance. 

Thread  Lace.  —  Made  of  linen  thread,  as  distinguished  from  cotton 
and  silk  laces. 

Torchon.  —  Coarse,  open  bobbin  lace  of  stout  but  loosely  twisted 
thread  in  very  simple  patterns.  Much  seen  in  imitations,  usually 
in  narrow  widths. 

Van  Dyke  Points.  —  Applied  to  laces  with  a  border  made  in  large 
points. 

Valenciennes.  —  Commonly  called  Val.  Bobbin  lace,  seen  mostly  in 
cheap  insertions  and  in  the  form  of  narrow  edgings. 

Venetian  Point.  —  Point  de  Venise.  Needlepoint  lace  in  floral  pat- 
tern with  the  designs  very  close  together  and  connected  by  brides 
ornamented  with  picots. 

Wood  Fiber.  —  Applied  to  all  laces  made  of  wood  silk. 

Yak.  —  Machine-made  worsted  lace.  Used  for  trimming  for  shawls, 
petticoats,  and  undergarments. 

Youghal.  —  Needlepoint  lace  of  coarse  thread,  made  exclusively  in 
Ireland. 

Ypres.  —  Bobbin  lace,  somewhat  coarser  than  Val. 


CHAPTER    XIV 
COTTON    FABRICS1 

Albatross.  Cotton  albatross  cloth  is  a  fabric  made 
in  imitation  of  a  worsted  fabric  of  the  same  name. 
It  has  a  fleecy  surface.  The  name  is  taken  from  the 
bird  whose  downy  breast  the  finish  of  the  fabric  re- 
sembles. The  warp  is  usually  28s  cotton,  the  filling  36 
cotton.  It  is  a  plain  weave.  Filling  and  warp  count 
48  picks  per  inch.  The  goods  are  finished  by  being 
burled,  sheared,  washed,  singed,  dyed,  rinsed,  dried,  and 
pressed,  care  being  taken  not  to  press  too  hard.  Some- 
times singeing  is  omitted.  Albatross  cloth  is  generally 
in  white,  black,  or  solid  colors.  It  is  not  often  printed. 
It  is  light  in  weight,  and  is  used  for  dress  goods. 

Awning.  A  cotton  cloth  used  as  a  cover  to  shelter 
from  sun  rays. 

Batiste.  Batiste  is  of  French  origin,  and  is  a  light, 
transparent  cloth,  made  from  a  fine  quality  of  combed 
cotton  yarn.  There  is  a  gradual  variation  in  quality 
ranging  from  a  comparatively  coarse  to  a  very  fine 
fabric.  The  variety  of  qualities  will  suggest  some 
idea  of  the  utility  of  the  fabric.  Its  uses  are  even  more 
varied  than  are  the  qualities.  The  finer  grades  are 

1  This  information  is  from  the  leading  authority,  "The  Cotton  Fabrics 
Glossary,"  published  by  the  American  Wool  and  Cotton  Reporter,  Boston, 
Mass.,  and  is  reprinted  here  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Frank  P.  Bennett. 

173 


174  TEXTILES 

used  for  dress  goods  and  all  kinds  of  lingerie  for  summer 
wear,  etc.,  while  the  cheaper  grades  are  used  for  linings 
in  washable  and  unwashable  shirt  waists.  Batiste  is 
woven  in  the  gray,  that  is,  with  yarn  direct  from  the 
spinning  frame,  with  the  exception  that  the  warp  yarn 
is  well  sized,  in  order  to  stand  better  the  strain  to 
which  it  is  subjected  during  the  weaving  process. 

Bourrette.  A  light  weight,  single  cloth  fabric,  with 
two-ply  cotton  warp  and  wool  or  a  combination  of  cotton 
and  shoddy  filling,  made  with  the  plain  weave  and  in 
appearance  a  semi-rough-faced  woolen  fabric  with  fancy 
effects  in  twist  scattered  about  it.  It  is  used  principally 
for  ladies'  fall  suitings. 

Bedford  Cord.  This  is  one  of  the  most  popular  types 
of  fabrics,  the  distinguishing  effect  being  a  line  or  cord 
running  lengthwise  of  the  cloth,  the  cord  being  more 
or  less  prominent.  The  cloth  is  made  of  cotton,  or 
sometimes  of  worsted.  The  face  effect  of  the  Bedford 
cord  is  generally  plain.  Occasionally  twill-faced  cords 
are  used.  The  cords  vary  in  width  from  about  one 
twentieth  to  one  quarter  of  an  inch.  To  get  extra 
weight  without  altering  the  appearance  of  the  face, 
extra  warp  yarns,  termed  wadding  ends,  are  inserted 
between  the  face  weave  and  the  filling,  floating  at  the 
back  of  the  rib.  When  these  wadding  ends  are  coarse, 
they  give  a  pronounced  rounded  appearance  to  the  cord. 
They  run  from  88  to  156  picks  to  an  inch. 

Buckram.  Buckram  is  derived  from  Bokhara.  It 
may  be  described  as  a  coarse,  glue-sized  fabric,  and  is 
made  of  cotton,  hemp,  linen,  or  cotton  and  hair  (coarse) 


COTTON   FABRICS  175 

yarns,  usually  from  10s  to  25s.  Made  of  a  double  cloth 
warp,  22s  cotton,  34  picks  to  the  inch,  for  the  face  or 
top  fabric  V^'s1;  weight  from  loom  2.22  ozs.  per  yard. 
Bottom  fabric  Vi2's  cotton;  filling  /16's  cotton;  12  picks 
to  the  inch.  Weight  per  yard,  1.8  ounces.  These  fabrics 
depend  a  great  deal  on  the  finishing.  The  men's  wear 
requires  less  sizing  on  account  of  the  hair  it  contains. 
The  goods  are  piece  dyed.  Buckram  is  used  principally 
for  stiffening  garments,  and  to  give  them  shape  or  form. 
It  is  placed  between  the  lining  and  the  surface  cloth 
of  the  garment  in  particular  parts,  such  as  the  lapels, 
etc.  It  is  used  in  the  millinery  trade,  and  is  made 
into  hats.  Millinery  buckram  is  sized  two  or  three  times. 
Calico  takes  its  name  from  Calicut,  a  city  in  India, 
where  cloth  was  first  printed.  The  majority  of  inex- 
pensive cotton  fabrics  are  constructed  on  the  one  up, 
one  down  system,  or  plain  weave.  Calico  is  no  excep- 
tion to  this  rule.  The  printed  designs  on  calicoes  may 
be  somewhat  elaborate  or  they  may  be  simple  geomet- 
rical figures.  In  order,  however,  to  comply  with  the 
true  principles  of  art,  such  fabrics  as  calicoes  should 
have  but  simple  geometrical  figures  for  their  orna- 
mental features.  New  styles  and  combinations  of  colors 
are  produced  every  month  and  faster  and  lighter  color 
printed  each  season.  Most  of  the  designs  for  calicoes 
and  cotton  cloth  printing  are  made  in  Paris.  At  present 
the  steam  styles  are  most  prominent ;  they  are  the  fastest 
and  lightest  to  be  obtained.  Calico  is  a  printed  cloth, 

1 1/i2's  cotton  signifies  single  cotton  yarn  of  12's.     2/i2Js  cotton 
signifies  two  sets  of  single  cotton  yarn  of  12's  twisted  together. 


176  TEXTILES 

the  printing  being  done  by  a  printing  machine  which 
has  a  rotating  impression  cylinder  on  which  the  design 
has  been  stamped  or  cut  out.  The  cloth  in  passing 
through  the  machine  comes  in  contact  with  the  impres- 
sion cylinder.  The  cylinder  revolving  in  a  color  trough 
takes  up  the  color  and  leaves  the  impression  of  the 
design  on  the  cloth.  Calicoes  may  be  seen  in  almost 
any  color.  The  printing  machine  is  capable  of  printing 
several  colors  in  one  design.  Calicoes,  however,  are 
usually  in  two  colors,  that  is,  one  color  for  ground  and 
the  other  for  figure.  The  ground  color  in  most  cases  is 
effected  by  dyeing  the  cloth  in  some  solid  color.  After 
the  cloth  is  dyed  the  design  is  printed  on  it.  The  cloth, 
after  it  comes  from  the  loom,  is  singed  and  bleached, 
then  sheared  and  brushed  to  take  away  all  the  lint,  and 
then  sent  to  the  dye  house.  The  first  process  there 
is  to  boil  it,  after  which  it  is  immersed  in  the  dye  tub. 
Calicoes  are  usually  given  what  may  be  termed  a  "cheap 
cotton  dye."  By  "cheap  cotton  dye"  is  meant  that 
the  colors  are  not  fast,  but  will  run  or  fade  when  sub- 
jected to  water.  After  the  fabric  is  dyed,  it  is  given  to 
the  printer,  who  ornaments  the  face  of  the  cloth  with 
some  geometrical  design;  then  it  is  practically  ready 
for  the  merchant.  After  printing,  the  cloth  is  dried  and 
steamed  to  fix  the  color,  afterwards  soaped,  washed, 
finished,  and  folded.  The  printing  machine  turns  out 
about  400  to  800  fifty-yard  pieces  a  day.  Calico  is 
used  for  inexpensive  dresses,  shirtwaists,  wrappers,  etc. 
Cambric.  Cambric  is  a  heavy,  glazed  cotton  fabric 
with  a  smooth  finish.  It  was  first  made  in  Cambrai, 


COTTON   FABRICS  177 

France.  It  has  a  plain  weave  and  a  width  of  thirty- 
six  inches.  Cambrics  are  dyed  in  a  jig  machine.  After 
dyeing  they  are  run  through  a  mangle  containing 
the  sizing  substance,  then  dried,  dampened,  and  run 
through  a  calender  machine.  The  glossy  effect  is  ob- 
tained in  this  last  finishing  process.  Cambric  is  used 
for  shirtwaists,  dress  goods,  etc.  The  finer  grades  are 
made  from  hard  twisted  cotton  of  good  quality. 

Canvas.  This  is  a  term  applied  to  heavy,  plain 
weave  cloths  made  with  ply  cotton  yarn.  They  are 
used  for  mail  bags,  covering  for  boats,  etc. 

Chambray.  Chambray  is  a  staple  fabric  of  many 
years  standing,  being  next  in  rank  among  cotton  goods 
after  the  better  grade  of  gingham.  Chambray  is  a 
light-weight  single  cloth  fabric  that  is  always  woven 
with  a  plain  weave,  and  always  has  a  white  selvedge. 
In  effect  it  is  a  cloth  having  but  one  color  in  the  warp, 
and  woven  with  a  white  filling,  this  combination  pro- 
ducing a  solid  color  effect,  the  white  filling  reducing 
any  harshness  of  warp  color  in  the  cloth.  It  is  com- 
posed of  one  warp  and  one  filling,  either  all  cotton, 
cotton  and  silk,  or  all  silk.  It  is  twenty-seven  to  thirty 
inches  in  width  and  single  30s  cotton  warp  to  single 
60s  silk,  the  count  of  yarn  being  governed  by  the 
weight  per  yard  desired.  The  weight  per  finished  yard 
is  two  to  three  and  one-half  ounces.  Good  colors  for 
the  warp  are  navy  blue,  dark  brown,  lavender,  black, 
nile  green,  etc.  When  made  of  cotton  warp  and  filling 
the  fabric  receives  a  regular  gingham  finish.  The  loom 
width  can  be  restored  by  tentering  or  running  the 


178  TEXTILES 

goods  over  a  machine  fitted  underneath  with  a  series 
of  coils  of  steam  pipe.  The  top  of  this  machine  is 
fitted  with  an  endless  chain  with  a  row  of  steel  nee- 
dles standing  erect  upon  its  face.  Chains  are  adjusted 
to  the  width  desired,  and  as  the  machine  runs,  both 
selvedges  are  caught  by  the  needles  and  the  cloth 
stretched  to  the  required  width. 

Cheese  Cloth.  This  is  a  thin  cotton  fabric  of  light 
weight  and  low  counts  of  yarn,  which  ranks  among  the 
cheapest  in  cotton  goods.  It  is  used  for  innumerable 
purposes.  The  bleached  fabric  is  used  for  wrapping 
cheese  and  butter  after  they  are  pressed.  It  is  also 
much  in  demand  for  bunting  for  festival  occasions, 
light  curtains,  masquerade  dresses,  etc.  When  used 
for  bunting,  draperies,  and  the  like  it  is  usually  in  colors, 
red,  blue,  cream,  and  yellow  seeming  to  have  the  greatest 
demand.  The  weave  is  one  and  one  or  plain  weave. 

Chine.  Sometimes  applied  to  glace  silk,  or  cotton 
two-toned  effects.  The  name  is  French,  meaning  woven 
so  as  to  have  a  mottled  effect. 

Chintz.  Printed  cotton  cloth,  with  large,  many- 
colored  designs,  used  for  furniture  covering.  The 
Hindoo  wears  it  as  a  body  covering.  Chintz  is  the 
Hindoo  word  meaning  variegated. 

Cotton  Flannel.  Napped  cotton  flannel.  Made  first 
for  trade  in  Canton,  China. 

Crash.     A  plain  fabric  for  outing  suits,  towels,  etc. 

Crepe.  A  fine,  thin  fabric  of  open  texture  made  of 
cotton. 

Crepon.     Large  designs  in  figured  crepe.     The  name 


COTTON   FABRICS  179 

applies  to  the  crispiness  of  the  finish  and  is  from  the 
French  word  creper,  to  make  crisp. 

Cretonne.  Heavy  cotton  cloth  printed  in  large 
designs,  for  drapery  and  furniture  use.  Cretonne  was  a 
Frenchman  who  first  made  the  cloth. 

Crinoline.  Crinoline  is  a  fabric  composed  of  cotton 
warp,  horsehair  filling,  or  all  cotton  yarns.  It  is  sold 
in  varying  widths,  and  is  used  by  tailors  and  dress- 
makers in  stiffening  clothing.  It  is  a  cheap  cloth  of 
low  texture  and  simple  construction,  the  distinguishing 
feature  being  the  stiff  finish  with  either  a  dull  or  highly 
glazed  face  on  the  cloth. 

Damask.  A  cloth  of  silk  and  cotton,  silk  and  linen, 
silk  and  wool,  or  all  linen  in  flowered  or  geometrical 
designs  for  drapery  or  table  covering.  The  weaves 
used  are  mostly  twills  and  sateens.  It  takes  its  name 
from  Damascus,  where  it  was  first  made. 

Denim.  This  is  a  strong  fabric  usually  made  with  a 
two  up  and  one  down  twill.  It  is  used  for  overalls,  furni- 
ture covering,  and  floor  covering. 

Diaper.  A  figured  cotton  or  linen  fabric,  which  gets 
its  name  from  the  Greek  diapron,  meaning  figured.  It 
is  generally  of  good  quality  as  it  is  subject  to  excessive 
washing. 

Dimity.  A  light-weight  cotton  fabric,  the  distin- 
guishing feature  of  which  is  the  cords  or  ribs  running 
warpwise  through  the  cloth,  and  produced  by  doubling 
the  warp  threads  in  either  heddle  or  reed  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  form  the  rib  desired.  The  name  is  from  a 
Greek  word  meaning  two-threaded.  Dimity  is  a  ladies' 


180  TEXTILES 

summer  dress  fabric,  and  is  made  of  regular  cotton 
yarn,  from  Veo's  to  the  finest  counts  in  both  warp  and 
filling.  It  is  made  in  both  white  and  colors,  solid 
white  being  used  in  the  most  expensive  grades.  Colors 
are  often  printed  upon  the  face  of  the  fabric  after  it 
has  been  woven  in  the  white. 

Domet.  This  cloth  is  napped  similar  to  a  cotton 
flannel.  It  is  used  for  shirts,  pajamas,  etc.,  and  made 
with  bright  colored  stripes  and  check  patterns.  The 
name  is  from  domestic,  home  made. 

Duck.  Duck  is  a  heavy  single  cloth  fabric  made  of 
coarse  two-ply  yarn  and  of  a  plain  weave.  It  derives 
its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  a  duck's  skin.  It  is  of 
a  lighter  weight  than  canvas.  In  finishing  duck  is  taken 
from  the  loom  and  washed  and  sized,  then  dried  and 
pressed.  If  a  fancy  solid  color  is  desired  the  goods  are 
dyed  in  the  piece  after  the  first  washing.  Duck  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  sails,  tents,  car  curtains,  and  for 
any  purpose  requiring  a  good  water-tight  fabric,  which 
will  withstand  rough  usage.  Duck  has  a  stiff  hard  feel, 
and  excellent  wearing  qualities.  The  lighter  weights 
are  used  for  ladies'  shirtwaist  suits,  men's  white  trousers, 
etc. 

Drill.  A  cotton  fabric  of  medium  weight  generally 
made  with  the  two  up  and  one  down  twill.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  for  shoe  linings. 

Eolienne  is  the  name  applied  to  a  fine  dress  fabric 
characterized  by  having  the  filling  of  a  much  coarser 
count  than  the  warp,  thus  producing  a  corded  effect 
across  the  breadth  of  the  goods.  This  class  of  goods 


COTTON   FABRICS  181 

is  made  up  of  a  raw  silk  warp  and  either  cotton  or 
worsted  filling,  with  the  warp  ends  per  inch  greatly 
in  excess  of  picks  per  inch.  The  goods  are  made 
up  in  gray,  then  dyed  in  the  piece  in  any  color  the 
trade  desires.  The  darker  shades  find  most  favor 
for  fall  and  winter  use,  while  the  lighter  shades  are 
preferred  for  summer  wear.  The  width  is  from  twenty- 
seven  to  fifty  inches,  and  the  price  per  yard  varies 
from  85  cents  to  $1.25. 

Etamine.  An  etamine  is  a  thin,  glossy  fabric  used 
principally  for  women's  dress  goods.  Being  a  com- 
mon and  popular  material  for  summer  wear,  it  is  usually 
made  as  a  piece-dyed  fabric.  A  good  reason  for  making 
it  piece-dyed  is  that  this  method  is  much  cheaper  than 
if  the  yarn  is  dyed  previous  to  the  weaving.  Etamines 
were  originally  made  with  worsted  yarns,  which  of  course 
are  more  expensive;  however,  if  a  good  quality  of  cotton 
is  used,  there  is  little  difference  in  appearance  between 
worsted  and  cotton  etamine.  The  difference  is  chiefly 
in  the  wearing  quality,  worsted  being  more  durable. 
The  principal  characteristic  of  an  etamine  is  a  crisp, 
glossy,  and  open  structure. 

Flannelette  is  a  narrow,  light-weight  fabric  composed 
of  all  cotton  yarn,  the  filling  being  soft  spun  to  permit 
of  the  raising  of  a  very  slight  nap  on  the  back  of  the 
goods.  The  cloth  is  woven  with  bleached  yarn  (warp 
and  filling),  the  color  effects  being  afterwards  printed 
upon  the  face  of  the  goods  by  the  printing  machine. 
Flannelette  is  made  with  simple  one  or  two  colored  stripe 
patterns,  either  black  and  white  or  indigo  blue  and 


182  TEXTILES 

white,  and  in  imitation  of  a  Jacquard  pattern.  The 
finished  fabrics  are  sold  by  the  retailer  at  from  eight 
cents  to  twelve  and  one-half  cents  per  yard,  are 
twenty-seven  inches  wide,  and  are  used  very  extensively 
in  the  manufacture  of  ladies'  wrappers,  kimonos,  etc., 
for  house  wear. 

Fustian.  A  corded  fabric  made  on  the  order  of  cor- 
duroy and  used  in  England  for  trouserings,  etc.  First 
made  at  Fustat,  a  town  on  the  Nile,  near  Cairo.  Velvet- 
een and  cordings  in  the  lower,  coarser  grades  were  some- 
times called  Fustian. 

Galatea  Cloth.  Galatea  cloth  has  been  somewhat 
in  demand  in  recent  years  by  women  requiring  service- 
able and  neat-appearing  cotton  fabrics  at  a  medium 
price.  It  is  usually  finished  twenty-seven  inches  wide 
and  retails  at  fourteen  cents  to  twenty  cents  per  yard. 
It  is  shown  in  plain  colors  as  well  as  in  figures,  and  in 
dotted  and  striped  designs  on  white  and  colored  grounds. 
The  patterns  are  obtained  by  printing.  Some  manufac- 
turers have  found  that  they  can  take  a  standard  type 
of  fabric  and  extend  its  use  by  varying  the  process  of 
finishing.  The  base  of  the  cloth  —  that  is,  the  fabric 
previous  to  dyeing  or  printing  or  bleaching  —  is  nothing 
more  than  an  ordinary  5-end  warp  sateen  of  fair  quality. 

Gauze.     A  veiling  net,  made  in  Gaza  in  Palestine. 

Gingham.  Gingham  is  a  single  cloth  composed  en- 
tirely of  cotton,  and  always  woven  with  a  plain  weave. 
It  is  yarn-dyed  in  stripes  or  checks  and  was  originally  of 
Indian  make.  It  is  the  most  widely  known  fabric  on  the 
market  and  is  made  in  various  grades,  having  from  fifty 


COTTON   FABRICS  183 

to  seventy-six  ends  per  inch  in  the  reed,  and  of  1/2&s  to 
Ws  cotton  yarns  in  both  warp  and  filling.  It  is  a  wash 
fabric,  made  in  both  check  and  plaid  patterns  into  which 
an  almost  unlimited  variety  of  color  combinations  are 
introduced.  Ginghams  are  made  with  from  two  colors, 
warp  and  filling,  to  eight  colors  in  warp  and  six  in  filling. 
Ginghams  are  used  most  commonly  in  the  manufacture 
of  ladies'  and  children's  summer  dresses  and  aprons. 

Italian  Cloth  is  a  light,  glossy  fabric  made  from 
cotton  and  worsted,  cotton  and  wool,  cotton  and  mo- 
hair, and  all  cotton.  It  is  used  for  linings  for  the  heavier 
styles  of  ladies'  dresses,  also  for  underskirts,  fancy 
pillow  backs,  etc.  The  cloth  is  woven  in  the  gray 
undyed  yarns.  In  the  finer  grades  the  warp  is  sized 
so  as  to  facilitate  the  weaving  process. 

Jaconet.  A  thin  cotton  fabric,  heavier  than  cambric. 
If  properly  made  one  side  is  glazed.  Derived  from  the 
French  word  jaconas. 

Khaki.  Twilled  cotton  cloth  of  a  brown  dust  color, 
first  used  for  men's  clothing  in  India.  The  word  khaki 
is  Indian  for  earth,  or  dust-colored. 

Lawn.  Lawn  is  a  light-weight  single  cloth  wash 
fabric,  weighing  from  one  and  one  fourth  to  two  and  one 
fourth  ounces  per  yard,  and  in  widths  from  thirty-six 
to  forty  inches  finished.  It  is  composed  of  all  cotton 
yarns  (bleached)  from  Ws  to  ViooX  and  is  always  woven 
with  a  plain  weave,  one  up,  one  down.  The  name  is 
from  Laon,  a  place  near  Rheims,  France,  where  lawn 
was  extensively  made.  Plain  lawn  is  made  of  solid  white 
or  bleached  yarn  in  both  warp  and  filling.  The  fancier 


184  TEXTILES 

grades,  or  those  having  color  effects,  are  produced  by 
printing  vines,  floral  stripes,  small  flowers,  etc.,  in  bright 
colors  in  scattered  effects  on  the  face  of  the  goods.  The 
patterns  are  always  printed,  never  woven.  Lawn, 
when  finished,  should  have  a  soft,  smooth  feel.  There- 
fore the  finishing  process  includes  brushing,  very  light 
starching  or  sizing,  then  calendering  or  pressing.  Lawns 
have  to  be  handled  carefully  in  the  bleaching  process, 
starched  with  an  ordinary  starch  mangle  (the  sizing  con- 
taining a  little  blueing) ,  finished  on  the  Stenter  machine, 
and  dried  with  hot  air.  Lawns  are  often  tinted  light 
shades  of  blue,  pink,  cream,  pearl,  green,  and  other 
light  tints,  with  the  direct  colors  added  to  the  starch. 
It  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  ladies'  and 
children's  summer  dresses,  sash  curtains,  etc. 

Lingerie.  This  relates  to  all  sorts  of  ladies'  and 
children's  undergarments,  such  as  skirts,  underskirts, 
infants'  short  dresses,  chemises,  night  robes,  drawers, 
corset  covers,  etc. 

Linon  is  a  fine,  closely  woven  plain  fabric,  well 
known  for  its  excellent  wearing  and  washing  qualities. 
It  is  made  from  combed  cotton  yarns  of  long-stapled 
stocks  to  resemble  as  closely  as  possible  fine  linen  fab- 
rics. The  cloth  structure  is  firmly  made  in  the  loom. 

Long  Cloth  is  a  fine  cotton  fabric  of  superior  quality, 
made  with  a  fine  grade  of  cotton  yarn  of  medium  twist. 
Originally  the  fabric  was  manufactured  in  England, 
and  subsequently  imitated  in  the  United  States.  The 
fabric  is  used  for  infants'  long  dresses,  from  which  it 
derives  its  name,  and  for  lingerie.  Long  cloth  to  some 


COTTON   FABRICS  185 

extent  resembles  batiste,  fine  muslins,  India  linen,  and 
cambric.  It  is  distinguished  from  these  fabrics  by  the 
closeness  of  its  weave,  and  when  finished  the  fabric 
possesses  a  whiter  appearance,  due  to  the  closeness  of 
the  weave  and  the  soft  twist  of  the  yarn.  It  is  not  used 
as  a  dress  fabric,  chiefly  because  of  its  finished  appear- 
ance, which  is  similar  in  all  respects  to  fabrics  which  we 
have  been  accustomed  to  see  used  solely  for  lingerie, 
nightgowns,  etc. 

Madras  is  a  light-weight  single  cloth  fabric,  composed 
of  all  cotton  or  cotton  and  silk,  and  has  excellent  wearing 
qualities.  It  was  at  first  a  light-colored  checked  or 
striped  plain-faced  cotton-silk  fabric,  made  in  Madras, 
India,  for  sailors'  head-dress.  It  is  twenty-seven  inches 
wide,  and  is  made  of  varying  grades,  weighing  from 
two  to  three  ounces  per  yard,  and  is  used  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.  It  is  used  by  ladies  for  summer  skirts, 
shirtwaists,  suits,  etc.,  and  by  men  in  shirts.  It  is 
known  by  the  white  and  colored  narrow-stripe  warp 
effects,  and  is  made  of  cotton  yarns  ranging  from  1/26  to 
1/80  warp  and  filling,  and  from  50  to  100  or  more  ends 
per  inch.  The  utility  of  madras  for  nearly  all  classes  of 
people  permits  the  greatest  scope  in  creating  both  har- 
monious and  contrasting  color  and  weave  combinations. 

The  colors  most  in  demand  in  this  fabric  are  rich  and 
delicate  shades  of  blue,  rose,  green,  linen,  tan,  lavender, 
and  bright  red;  for  prominent  hair-line  effects  black, 
navy  blue,  dark  green,  royal  blue,  and  cherry  red. 
Good  fast  color  is  necessary  as  it  is  a  wash  fabric.  If 
inferior  colors  are  used,  they  will  surely  spread  during 


186  TEXTILES 

the  finishing  processes,  and  will  cause  a  clouded  stripe 
where  a  distinct  one  was  intended. 

Moreen.  Heavy  mohair,  cotton,  or  silk  and  cotton 
cloth,  with  worsted  or  moire  face.  The  making  of 
moreen  is  interesting.  The  undyed  cloth  is  placed  in 
a  trough  in  as  many  layers  as  will  take  the  finish.  This 
finish  is  imparted  to  the  cloth  by  placing  between  the 
layers  sheets  of  manila  paper;  the  contents  of  the  trough 
are  then  saturated  with  water;  a  heavy  weighted  roller  is 
then  passed  over  the  wetted  paper  and  cloth,  the  move- 
ment of  the  roller  giving  the  cloth  a  watered  face.  It 
can  then  be  dyed  and  refinished.  The  design  or  marking 
of  moreen  is  different  on  every  piece.  Moreen  was  at 
first  made  for  upholstery  and  drapery  use.  It  was 
found  to  give  a  rustling  sound  similar  to  silk,  so  was 
taken  up  for  underskirts.  The  name  is  from  the 
French  moire,  meaning  watering. 

Mull.  A  soft  cotton  muslin  of  fine  quality,  made 
first  in  India,  later  in  Switzerland.  The  name  in  Hindoo 
is  mal,  meaning  soft,  pliable. 

Mummy.  A  plain  weave  of  flax  or  linen  yarn.  Origi- 
nally the  winding  cloth  of  the  Egyptian  mummified 
dead. 

Muslin.  A  fine  cotton  cloth  of  plain  weave  originally 
made  in  Mosul,  a  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  in  Asia. 

Nainsook.  Nainsook  is  a  light  cotton  fabric  utilized 
for  various  purposes,  such  as  infants'  clothes,  women's 
dress  goods,  lingerie,  half  curtains,  etc.  The  striped 
and  plaid  nainsook  are  used  for  the  same  purposes. 
When  the  fabric  is  required  for  lingerie  and  infants' 


COTTON   FABRICS  187 

clothes  the  English  fabric  is  selected  because  of  its 
softness.  When  intended  for  dress  or  curtain  fabric, 
the  French-finished  fabric  is  chosen.  The  latter  finish 
consists  of  slightly  stiffening  and  calendering  the  cloth. 
The  fabric  may  be  distinguished  from  fine  lawns,  fine 
batiste,  and  fine  cambric  by  the  fact  that  it  has  not 
as  firm  construction  or  as  much  body,  and  the  finish 
is  not  as  smooth  or  as  stiff,  but  inclines  to  softness, 
as  the  fabric  has  not  the  body  to  retain  the  finishing 
material. 

Organdie.  An  organdie  may  be  defined  as  a  fine, 
translucent  muslin  used  exclusively  for  dress  goods. 
The  fabric  is  made  in  a  variety  of  qualities  as  regards  the 
counts  of  yarn  used,  and  in  a  variety  of  widths  rang- 
ing from  eighteen  to  sixty  inches.  The  plain  organdie  is 
popular  in  pure  white,  although  considerable  quantities 
are  dyed  in  the  solid  colors,  pale  blue,  pink,  etc.,  while 
the  figured  organdies  are  usually  bleached  pure  white, 
then  printed  with  small  floral  designs.  The  printed 
design  is  in  from  two  to  four  colors,  and  in  delicate  shades 
in  conformity  with  the  material.  Organdie  considered 
in  relation  to  cost  as  wearing  material  is  rather 
expensive.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  it  has  a  finish 
peculiar  to  itself,  so  that  when  washed  it  does  not 
have  the  same  appearance  as  before.  It  loses  its  crisp 
feeling  altogether. 

Osnaburg.  A  coarse  cloth  of  flax  and  tow,  made  in 
America  of  cotton,  in  checks  •  or  plaids,  and  used  for 
furniture  covering  and  mattress  making.  The  town 
of  Osnaburg,  in  Germany,  made  the  fabric  first. 


188  TEXTILES 

Percale.  Percale  is  a  closely  woven  fabric  made 
with  a  good  quality  of  cotton  yarn.  The  finer  qualities 
are  used  for  handkerchiefs,  aprons,  etc.,  and  when 
used  for  these  purposes  are  not  printed,  but  bleached 
after  the  fabric  comes  from  the  loom.  Percale  is  chiefly 
used  for  dress  fabrics,  and  when  used  for  this  purpose  is 
generally  printed  on  one  side  with  geometrical  figures, 
generally  black,  although  other  colors  may  be  seen. 
The  fabric  is  bleached  before  it  is  subjected  to  the 
printing  operations. 

Percaline.  Percaline  is  a  highly  finished  and  dressed 
percale.  The  first  process  to  which  the  cloth  is  subjected 
is  to  boil  it  off,  that  is,  to  soak  it  in  boiling  water  so  as 
to  relieve  it  from  foreign  matter  that  it  may  have  gathered 
during  the  weaving,  and  at  the  same  time  to  prepare  it 
for  dyeing.  After  dyeing  it  is  sized  to  stiffen  it,  and 
also  to  increase  the  gloss  on  the  cloth.  After  sizing  it 
is  ready  for  the  calender.  In  order  to  give  it  the  highest 
gloss  the  cloth  is  doubled  lengthwise  or  the  pieces  are 
put  together  back  to  back,  and  as  it  passes  through  the 
rolls  it  is  wet  by  steam,  the  rolls  being  well  heated  and 
tightly  set  together.  Percaline  is  used  chiefly  for 
feminine  wearing  apparel,  principally  for  linings,  petti- 
coats, etc.  These  purposes  require  that  the  cloth  shall 
be  solid  color,  the  darker  colors  being  preferred,  as  blue, 
green,  and  black.  Sometimes  it  is  seen  in  lighter  shades 
of  brown  and  tan.  The  most  attention  is  given  to  the 
finishing  process. 

Pique.  Pique  is  a  heavy  cotton  material  woven  in 
corded  or  figured  effects.  The  goods  are  used  for  such 


COTTON   FABRICS  189 

purposes  as  ladies'  tailor-made  suits,  vestings,  shirt 
fronts,  cravats,  bedspreads,  and  the  like.  It  was 
originally  woven  in  diamond-shaped  designs  to  imitate 
quilting.  The  name  is  French  for  quilting.  The 
plainest  and  most  common  fabrics  of  pique  are  those  in 
which  the  pattern  consists  of  straight  cords  extending 
across  the  cloth  in  the  direction  of  the  weft.  In  the 
construction  of  these  fabrics,  both  a  face  and  back  warp 
are  required,  and  the  cords  are  produced  by  all  the  back 
warp  threads  being  raised  at  intervals  of  six,  eight,  or 
more  picks  over  two  or  more  picks  of  the  face  cloth, 
which  has  a  tendency  to  draw  down  on  the  surface  of  the 
fabric.  The  goods  are  always  woven  white  and  no  colors 
are  ever  used.  The  face  warp  threads  are  generally 
finer  than  the  back  warp  threads,  and  are  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  threads  for  the  face  and  one  thread  for  the 
back.  On  the  heavier  and  better  grades  of  pique  coarse 
picks  called  wadding  are  used  to  increase  the  weight, 
and  also  to  give  more  prominence  to  the  cord  effect. 
They  are  introduced  between  the  face  and  back  cloths. 
In  the  lightest  and  cheapest  grades  neither  any  wadding 
nor  back  picks  are  used.  In  this  case  the  back  warp 
threads  float  on  the  back  of  the  fabric  except  when  raising 
over  the  face  picks  to  form  the  cord.  In  the  figured 
pique  the  binding  of  the  back  warp  threads  into  the 
face  cloth  is  not  done  in  straight  lines  as  in  plain  pique, 
but  the  binding  points  are  introduced  so  as  to  form 
figures.  These  fabrics  are  woven  in  the  white,  and 
the  figures  are  purely  the  result  of  binding  the  face 
and  back  cloths  together. 


190  TEXTILES 

Poplin.  Poplin  or  popeline  is  a  name  given  to  a 
class  of  goods  distinguished  by  a  rib  or  cord  effect  running 
width  way  of  the  piece.  It  referred  originally  to  a  fabric 
having  a  silk  warp  and  a  figure  of  wool  filling  heavier 
than  the  warp.  At  the  present  time  it  refers  more  to  a 
ribbed  fabric  than  to  one  made  from  any  particular 
combination  of  materials.  Cotton  poplin  is  usually 
made  with  a  plain  weave,  the  rep  effect  being  obtained 
either  by  using  a  fine  warp  as  compared  with  the  filling, 
or  a  large  number  of  ends  as  compared  with  picks  per 
inch  on  both.  Irish  poplin  is  a  light-weight  variety  of 
poplin,  sometimes  called  single  poplin,  and  is  celebrated 
for  its  uniformly  fine  and  excellent  wearing  qualities. 
It  is  principally  made  in  Dublin. 

Plumetis.  Sheer  cotton  or  woolen  cloth  having 
raised  dots  or  figures  in  relief  on  plain  ground.  The 
design  shows  a  feathery  effect,  as  in  embroidery  tam- 
bour. The  name  is  French  for  this  kind  of  embroidery, 
and  is  derived  from  plume,  French  for  feather. 

Rep.  A  fabric  having  a  surface  of  a  cord-like 
appearance.  The  name  is  probably  corrupted  from 
rib.  It  is  used  in  making  shirtwaists  and  skirts. 

Sateen.  Twilled  cotton  cloth  of  light  weight,  finished 
to  imitate  silk  satin.  There  are  two  kinds,  viz.,  warp 
sateen  and  filling  sateen. 

Scrim.  Open  mesh  weave  of  cotton  or  linen  for  cur- 
tains and  linings.  The  name  is  from  scrimp,  referring 
to  economy  in  weaving. 

Silesia  is  a  light-weight  single  cloth  fabric,  having 
a  rather  high  texture,  and  weighing  about  three  ounces 


COTTON   FABRICS  191 

per  yard.  It  is  composed  of  all  cotton  yarn,  and  is 
used  principally  as  a  lining  for  ladies'  and  men's  cloth- 
ing. Silesia  is  woven  of  yarn  in  the  gray  state,  and  is 
dyed  in  the  piece  in  such  colors  as  black,  dark  blue, 
brown,  drab,  slate,  steel,  etc.  An  important  feature  is 
the  highly  glazed  or  polished  face  of  the  goods,  which 
is  due  to  the  action  of  the  heated  roller  in  the  calender- 
ing machine  upon  the  sizing. 

Souffle.  The  largest  designs  of  crepon  show  a  raised 
or  puffed  appearance.  Souffle  is  from  the  French  and 
means  puffed. 

Swiss.  From  Switzerland,  where  the  plain  Swiss  net 
and  figured  cambric  is  a  specialty  in  the  St.  Gall  dis- 
trict. 

Tape.  Tape  is  a  narrow  fabric  composed  either  of 
cotton  or  linen  yarns  in  warp  and  filling,  and  usually 
made  with  a  point  or  broken  twill  weave,  the  break  in 
the  weave  occurring  in  the  center  of  the  tape,  and  the 
twill  lines  running  in  a  right-  and  left-hand  direction. 
It  is  used  as  a  trimming  in  the  manufacture  of  clothing, 
also  as  a  binding  in  innumerable  cases,  and  is  sold  by 
the  roll,  each  roll  containing  a  certain  number  of  yards. 
It  is  made  of  all  bleached  and  of  regular  yarns  about 
AG'S  to  Vso's  and  Vic's  cotton. 

Tarletan.  An  open  mesh  of  coarse  cotton,  used 
mostly  in  fruit  packing,  sometimes  for  dress  and  drapery. 
The  name  is  from  tarlantanna,  Milanese  for  coarse 
weave  of  linen  and  wool. 

Terry  Cloth  or  Turkish  Toweling  is  a  cotton  pile 
fabric.  It  is  woven  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  the 


192  TEXTILES 

forming  of  a  series  of  loops  on  each  side  of  the  cloth 
in  regular  order.  After  leaving  the  loom  each  piece 
is  laid  separately  in  the  bleaching  kier.  Then  the  goods 
are  dried  on  a  tenter  frame,  given  a  light  starching  to 
add  weight,  run  through  a  rubber  rolled  mangle  and 
again  dried  on  a  tenter  frame.  This  cloth  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  towels,  Turkish  bath  robes,  etc.  Turk- 
ish toweling  is  the  original  terry.  The  name  is  from  the 
French  tirer,  to  draw  or  pull. 

Zephyr  Gingham  is  the  finest  grade  of  gingham  made 
and  is  a  light-weight  cotton  fabric,  composed  of  VWs  to 
/GO'S  cotton  warp  and  filling  yarns.  It  is  woven  with 
either  the  plain  weave  or  a  small  all-over  dobby  effect. 
It  is  made  in  attractive  patterns  by  using  good  fast 
colors  in  warp  and  filling,  and  as  a  cloth  has  excellent 
wearing  qualities. 


CHAPTER  XV 
FLAX 

Flax.  Flax  or  linen  occupies  the  first  position  in 
the  group  of  stem  fibers,1  being  not  only  the  oldest,  but 
next  to  cotton  the  most  important  vegetable  spinning 
material  known.  Its  value  is  increased  by  the  fact 
that  the  flax  plant  readily  adapts  itself  to  various  con- 
ditions of  soil  and  climate,  and  in  consequence  has 
gained  access  to  northerly  districts  and  cool  highlands. 
Although  flax  has  lost  some  of  its  importance  from  the 
successful  competition  of  cotton,  nevertheless  it  still 
forms  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  an  industry  which 
merits  all  the  care  bestowed  on  its  cultivation  and 
proves  highly  profitable. 

The  Physical  Structure  of  Flax.  Flax,  when  seen 
under  the  microscope,  looks  like  a  long,  cylindrical  tube 
of  uniform  thickness,  with  lumina  so  small  as  to  be 
visible  only  as  straight  black  lines  lengthwise  of  the 
fiber,  and  frequently  exhibits  small  transverse  cracks. 
It  is  never  twisted  like  cotton  fiber.  Its  color  varies 
from  pale  yellow  to  steel  gray  or  greenish  tints.  The 


stem  fibers  such  as  flax,  jute,  ramie  are  called  bast  fibers, 
and  before  any  of  them  can  be  utilized  industrially,  steps  have  to 
be  taken  to  render  them  free  from  gum.  When  the  stems  of  these 
plants  are  severed,  the  juice  tends  to  oxidize  through  contact  with 
the  air  and  forms  a  gum  of  a  peculiarly  tenacious  character. 

193 


194  TEXTILES 

difference  in  color  is  due  chiefly  to  the  process  of 
"  retting."  Its  average  length  is  about  twenty  inches, 
and  its  tensile  strength  is  superior  to  that  of  cotton. 
It  will  absorb  moisture,  12  per  cent  being  the 
standard  allowance  made. 

Flax  is  used  for  making  linen  thread  and  cloth,  yarn, 
twist,  string  fabric,  and  lace.  In  its  composition  it  is 
almost  purely  an  unlignified  cellulose,  and  its  specific 
gravity  is  1.5. 

Flax  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat  than  cotton,  hence 
linen  goods  always  feel  colder  than  cotton  goods. 

Russia  produces  more  than  one-half  the  world's 
supply  of  flax,  but  that  from  Belgium  and  Ireland  is  of 
the  best  quality.  Italy,  France,  Holland,  and  Egypt 
are  other  important  producers.  The  plant  is  an  annual, 
of  delicate  structure,  and  is  gathered  just  before  it  is 
ripe,  the  proper  time  being  indicated  by  the  changing 
of  the  color  from  green  to  brown.  At  the  time  of 
gathering  the  whole  plant  is  uprooted,  dried  on  the 
ground,  and  finally  rippled  with  iron  combs,  to  separate 
the  stalks  from  the  leaves,  lateral  shoots,  and  seeds. 

The  best  fiber  amounts  to  about  75  per  cent  of  the 
stalk.  To  separate  this  valuable  commercial  product 
from  the  woody  matter  the  stalks  are  first  subjected  to 
a  process  termed  retting,  which  is  steeping  them  in 
water  until  they  are  quite  soft.  Then  follow  the 
mechanical  processes  to  further  the  production  of  the 
fiber  and  free  it  from  all  useless  matter. 

These  are  as  follows: 

1.    Crushing  or  Beating.     This  consists  of  breaking 


FLAX 


195 


the  woody  matter  with  the  aid  of  mallets  or  in  stamp- 
ing mills. 

2.  Breaking.     This  is  passing  the  stalks  through  a 
series  of  horizontal  rollers  to  break  further  the  woody 
matter  and  at  the  same  time  separate  the  greater  part 
of  it  from  the  fiber. 

3.  Scutching.     The  object  of  this  process  is  to  re- 
move completely  the  woody  matter,  and  it  is  done  by 


PULLING    FLAX    IN    MINNESOTA 


means  of  rapidly  revolving  wooden  arms  or  blades, 
which  beat  the  firmly  held  flax  until  it  is  sufficiently 
cleaned  and  separated. 

4.  Hackling.  The  scutched  flax  is  drawn  through 
iron  combs  which  still  further  open  the  fiber.  Fineness 
of  fiber  depends  upon  the  number  of  times  it  is  hackled, 
each  time  with  a  finer  and  finer  instrument,  which 
secures  the  different  degrees  of  subdivision.  Then  the 
fibers  are  sorted  and  classified  as  to  length  and  quality 
and  laid  in  parallel  forms  ready  for  spinning  and  manu- 
facture into  linen. 


196  TEXTILES 

Bleaching.  Linen  is  bleached  in  the  form  of  yarn, 
thread,  and  cloth.  This  is  a  difficult  and  long  process 
owing  to  the  large  amount  of  natural  impurities  present 
in  flax  fiber,  and  the  difficulty  of  removing  or  dissolving 
them.  Bleaching  is  now  done  as  a  rule  by  chemical 
processes,  and  when  chemicals  are  used  great  care 
must  be  taken  about  their  strength  and  about  the  time 
the  cloth  is  allowed  to  remain  in  them.  In  olden  times 
sour  buttermilk  was  applied  to  linen  and  rubbed  in,  and 
then  bleaching  was  finished  out  of  doors  by  sun  and  rain. 
"  Unbleached  "  linen  is  treated  in  the  same  way  as 
bleached,  only  the  process  is  not  carried  to  such  an 
extent.  In  Ireland,  famous  for  its  bleaching,  chemicals 
are  used  in  the  earlier  stages  of  this  process,  and  then 
fine  linens  are  spread  out  on  the  grass  to  improve  their 
color,  and  to  purge  them  completely  of  any  chemicals 
used.  After  bleaching,  linen  is  washed,  dried,  starched, 
and  put  through  heavy  machines  to  give  it  a  glossy 
finish,  and  it  is  then  made  up  in  pieces  for  sale. 

Characteristics  of  Good  Linen.  Linen  is  noted  for 
its  smoothness  of  texture,  its  brilliancy  —  which  launder- 
ing increases  —  its  wearing  qualities,  and  its  exquisite 
freshness.  The  celebrated  Irish  linen  is  the  most  valu- 
able staple  in  the  market,  and  on  account  of  its  fineness 
and  strength,  and  particularly  its  bright  color,  it  attains 
an  unapproachable  excellence  because  the  best  processes 
are  used  throughout  the  entire  manufacture.  Linen 
is  less  elastic  and  pliable  than  cotton  and  bleaches  and 
dyes  readily. 

Flax  from  all   countries  is  woven  into    table  linen, 


FLAX  197 

though  very  fine  linen  must  have  carefully  prepared 
fiber.  Linen  should  be  soft,  yielding,  and  elastic,  with 
almost  a  leathery  feel.  Fineness  of  linen  does  not  always 
determine  good  wearing  qualities. 

Good  linen  ranges  in  price  from  75  cents  to  $3.00. 
Irish   linen   has   a   good   bleach.     French   and   Belgian 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 
STACKS    OF    FLAX    IN    BELGIUM 

linens,  while  fine  in  thread,  are  not  as  serviceable  as 
Irish  linen.  Germany  makes  a  good  wearing  linen,  but 
not  a  large  variety  of  patterns.  Scotch  linens  are  now 
used  more  than  other  kinds. 

Sources  of  Flax 

Russia,  Ireland, 

Holland,  Canada, 

Belgium,  U.  S.  (for  seed  only), 

Germany, 


198 


TEXTILES 


Sources  of  Manufactured  Linens 

Scotland,  Belgium, 

Ireland,  ,  France, 

Germany,  Russia, 

Austria,  United  States. 


MANUFACTURED  LINENS 


Damasks  and  Napkins 
Scotland, 
Ireland, 
Germany, 
Belgium. 


Towelings 

Scotland, 

Ireland, 

Germany, 

United  States, 

Russia. 

Glass  Checks 
Ireland. 


Canvas 
Scotland, 
Ireland. 


Handkerchief  Lawns, 

Cambrics,  and  Laces 

Ireland, 

Germany, 

France. 


Towels 
Germany, 
Scotland, 
Ireland, 
Austria, 
U.  S.  (union). 

Linen  Sheetings 
Ireland, 
Belgium, 
France, 
Scotland. 


Blouse  or  Dress  Linens 
Ireland, 
Scotland. 

Bleached  Waist  Linens 
Ireland, 
France, 
Belgium. 

Fancy  Linens,  Doylies,  etc. 
Germany, 
France, 
Japan, 

Madeira  Islands, 
Island  of  Teneriffe. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
HEMP 

Hemp  is  a  fiber  that  is  obtained  from  the  hemp  plant. 
It  grows  principally  in  Russia,  Poland,  France,  Italy, 


LOADING    HEMP    IN    MANILA 

Asia,  India,  the  Philippines,  Japan,  and  some  parts  of 
the  United  States  —  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Tennessee, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  New  York.  The  original  country 
of  the  hemp  plant  was  doubtless  Asia,  probably  that 

199 


200  TEXTILES 

part  near  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  preparatory  treat- 
ment is  similar  to  that  for  the  flax  plant,  except  that 
most  of  the  work  is  done  by  machinery.  Considered 
chemically,  in  addition  to  cellulose,  hemp  fiber  con- 
tains a  considerable  amount  of  woody  matter,  differ- 
ing in  this  respect  from  cotton.  Its  properties  are 
color  (pearl  gray,  with  green  or  yellow  tints),  fine- 
ness (which  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  hemp; 
it  is  usually  bought  as  fine  as  flax),  and  tensile 
strength  (which  is  considerable  and  greater  than  that 
of  flax).  Its  best  qualities  are  its  slight  luster  and 
its  ability  to  resist  to  a  great  extent  the  tendency 
to  rot  under  water.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
difficult  to  bleach,  it  is  used  chiefly  in  making  string, 
cord,  ropes,  etc. 

Sisal  Hemp.  Sisal  hemp  is  a  variety  that  grows 
extensively  in  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
The  plant,  the  agava  rigida,  is  similar  to  what  is  known 
in  this  country  as  the  century  plant.  The  fiber  is 
found  in  the  leaves  which  closely  surround  the  stalks. 
The  common  hemp  on  the  other  hand  is  found  closely 
surrounding  the  woody  part  of  the  stem.  The  fiber 
of  Sisal  hemp  is  obtained  by  scraping  away  the  fleshy 
part  of  the  leaves  with  large  wooden  knives  or  by 
machines. 

Manila  Hemp.  Manila  hemp  is  obtained  in  the 
Philippines.  The  plant  belongs  to  the  banana  family 
and  grows  as  large  as  a  small  tree.  The  hemp  is  ob- 
tained from  the  leaf  stalks  which  appear  to  form  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  The  fiber  is  larger,  not  so  stiff,  but 


HEMP 


201 


stronger  than  Sisal  hemp.     The  fiber  of  Russian  hemp 
is  the  strongest;   that  of  Italian  hemp  the  finest. 

Jute.  Jute  is  the  name  given  to  the  fibers  found  in 
certain  plants  which  grow  principally  in  India,  and  the 
East  Indian  Islands.  The  common  jute  comes  prin- 
cipally from  the  province  of  Bengal,  India,  where  it  was 
first  known  to  science  in  1725.  The  term  jute  was 


FIELD    OF    SISAL    HEMP 

first  applied  to  the  fiber  by  Dr.  Rosburgh  in  1795.  The 
plant  is  cut  just  about  the  time  when  it  appears 
in  full  flower.  The  stalks  are  then  bundled  and  retted 
by  steeping  in  pools  of  stagnant  water. 

Jute  occupies  third  position  in  importance  of  vege- 
table fibers  in  the  manufacturing  scale,  being  inferior 
to  cotton  and  flax.  Hemp  is  stronger  than  jute.  Jute 
becomes  weak  when  exposed  to  dampness. 

It  is  extensively  used  for  mixing  with  silk,  cotton, 
flax,  hemp,  and  woolen  fabrics.  The  coarse  varieties 


202  TEXTILES 

are  made  into  coarse  fabrics  —  sacks,  packing  cloth, 
etc.,  while  the  finer  varieties,  in  which  the  undesirable 
quality  of  growing  darker  with  age  is  less  apparent,  are 
used  for  making  carpets,  curtains,  and  heavy  plushes, 
for  which  they  are  very  suitable. 


CHAPTER   XVII 
SILK 

Silk.  The  silk  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  the 
cocoons  of  several  species  of  insects.  These  insects 
resemble  strongly  the  ordinary  caterpillars.  At  a  cer- 


MOTH,    SILKWORM,    AND    COCOONS 

tain  period  of  its  existence  the  silkworm  gives  off  a 
secretion  of  jelly-like  substance.  This  hardens  on 
exposure  to  the  air  as  the  worm  forces  it  out  and  winds 
it  about  its  body. 

It  takes  about  three  days  for  the  worm  to  form  the 
cocoon.  After  the  cocoon  has  been  formed  the  silk- 
worm passes  from  the  form  of  a  caterpillar  into  a 
moth  which  cuts  an  opening  through  the  cocoon  and 
flies  away.  It  is  very  important  that  the  moth  should 
not  be  allowed  to  escape  from  the  cocoon;  the  mere 

203 


204  TEXTILES 

breaking  of  the  cocoon  greatly  decreases  the  value  of 
the  thread.  The  cocoon  is  preserved  by  killing  the 
chrysalis  by  heat. 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  caterpillars,  but 
few  of  them  secrete  a  sufficient  quantity  of  silk  to  render 
them  of  commercial  value.  The  principal  species  is  the 
mulberry  silkworm  which  produces  most  of  the  silk 
in  commerce.  It  is  cultivated  and  fed  on  mulberry 
leaves.  There  are  other  varieties  of  silkworms  that  are 
not  capable  of  being  cultivated  and  are  called  wild  silk- 
worms. The  silk  produced  by  the  wild  worms  of  China 
and  India  is  called  "  tussah  "  (or  "  tussur  ").  The 
silk  is  inferior  to  that  produced  by  the  cultivated  worms 
and  is  used  for  making  pile  fabrics,  such  as  velvet, 
plush,  etc. 

The  color  of  the  cocoons  varies  greatly.  Most  of 
the  European  cocoons  are  bright  yellow,  though  some  are 
white.  The  Eastern  cocoons,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
mostly  white,  while  a  few  are  yellow.  The  wild  silks 
are  for  the  most  part  ecru  color,  though  some  are  pale 
green.  The  color,  except  in  the  wild  silks,  is  derived 
from  the  gum  which  is  secreted  by  the  worm,  and  with 
which  the  fibers  are  stuck  together.  This  gum  com- 
prises from  15  to  30  per  cent  of  the  weight  and  is 
removed  by  boiling  in  soap  and  water  before  the  silk 
is  dyed.  All  silks  except  the  wild  silks,  after  the  gum 
is  removed,  are  from  white  to  cream  in  color.  The 
tussah,  or  wild  silks,  remain  an  ecru  color. 

The  greatest  care  has  to  be  exercised  throughout  in 
the  care  of  the  moths,  eggs,  worms,  and  cocoons  —  this 


SILK 


205 


being  the  succession  of  changes.  That  is,  the  moth 
lays  eggs  which  are  collected  and  kept  cool  till  the 
proper  season  for  incubation.  They  are  then  kept  warm 
during  the  time  occupied  in  hatching,  sometimes  about 
the  person  of  the  raiser.  After  a  time  these  eggs  hatch 


REELING    RAW    SILK 

out  worms,  tiny  things  hardly  larger  than  the  head  of 
a  pin.  After,  the  worms  are  hatched  they  require  con- 
stant care  and  feeding  with  chopped  mulberry  leaves 
till  they  reach  maturity.  They  are  then  about  three 
inches  in  length,  and  spin  their  cocoons  from  a  fiber 
and  gum  which  they  secrete.  When  the  cocoons  are 
spun  the  worms  become  chrysalises  inside  of  them. 
The  cocoons  are  then  collected  and  the  chrysalises 


206  TEXTILES 

killed,  generally  by  heat,  before  they  can  again  become 
moths. 

Raw  Silk.  The  cocoons  are  next  sent  to  the  reelers 
or  filatures.  A  number  of  cocoons,  greater  or  less, 
according  to  the  size  of  thread  desired,  are  placed  in  a 
basin  of  hot  water,  which  softens  the  gum.  After  the 
outside  fibers  are  removed  so  that  the  ends  run  free, 
the  ends  are  collected  through  a  guide  and  are  wound 
upon  a  reel.  As  the  silk  cools  and  dries,  the  gum 
hardens,  sticking  the  fibers  from  the  different  cocoons 
together  in  one  smooth  thread  varying  in  size  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  cocoons  used.  After  the  silk 
has  been  reeled  and  dried  it  is  twisted  into  hanks 
and  sent  to  America  and  other  countries  as  raw  silk. 

Most  of  the  raw  silk  of  commerce  is  produced  in 
China,  Japan,  and  Italy.  It  is  also  produced  to  a  large 
extent  in  Italy,  Turkey,  and  Greece,  also  France  and 
Portugal.  The  cultivation  of  silk  is  not  only  carried 
on  by  private  firms,  but  is  encouraged  by  the  govern- 
ment to  the  extent  of  granting  money  to  the  manu- 
facturers. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  raise  silkworms 
in  the  United  States.  All  have  failed  on  account  of  the 
high  price  of  labor  necessary  to  feed  the  worms. 

Throwing.  The  manufacture  in  the  United  States 
begins  with  raw  silk.  We  import  our  raw  silk  chiefly 
from  Italy,  China,  and  Japan.  It  is  handled  here  first 
by  the  "  throwster,"  who  winds  it  fron  the  skein  and 
makes  various  kinds  of  thread  for  different  purposes. 

Raw  silk  wound  on  spools  in  a  single  thread,  and 


SILK  207 

called  singles  is  often  used  to  make  warps  (that  is,  the 
threads  running  lengthwise  of  a  piece  of  cloth)  for 
piece-dyed  goods,  or  cloth  which  is  woven  with  the 
gum  in  the  silk,  and  afterward  boiled  out  and  dyed. 
Singles  are  also  sometimes  used  for  filling  (that  is,  cross 
threads)  in  very  thin  fabrics. 

Silk  yarn  that  is  used  for  weaving  is  divided  into  two 
kinds,  "  tram  "  and  "  organzine."  Tram  silk  is  made 
by  twisting  two  or  more  loosely  twisted  threads.  It  is 
heavier  than  organzine  arid  is  used  for  filling.  Organ- 
zine silk  is  produced  by  uniting  a  number  of  strongly 
twisted  threads.  It  is  used  for  warp.  Crepe  yarn  is 
used  in  making  crepe,  chiffon,  and  for  other  purposes. 
It  is  very  hard  twisted  thread,  generally  tram,  from 
forty  to  eighty  turns  per  inch. 

Embroidery  silk  is  made  by  winding  the  raw  silk, 
putting  a  large  number  of  ends  together,  giving  them 
a  slack  twist,  then  doubling  and  twisting  in  the  reverse 
direction  with  a  slack  twist. 

Sewing  silk  is  made  by  winding  and  doubling  the 
raw  product,  then  twisting  into  tram,  giving  it  a  slack 
twist,  doubling  and  twisting  in  the  reverse  direction 
under  tension.  Machine  twist  is  similar,  but  three  ply. 

The  principal  fabrics  made  of  silk  are:  silk,  satin, 
plush,  chenille,  crepe,  crepon,  gauze,  damask,  brocade, 
pongee,  and  ribbons.  Silk  thread  and  cord  are  also 
extensively  used.  The  United  States  is  among  the 
leaders  in  the  manufacture  of  silk  fabrics. 

Silk  Waste.  When  the  cocoons  are  softened  for  reel- 
ing a  certain  portion  of  the  silk  is  found  to  consist  of 


293  TEXTILES      . 

waste  and  broken  threads.  The  tangled  silk  on  the 
outside  of  the  cocoon  is  called  floss.  The  residue  after 
reeling,  and  other  wastes  in  reeling,  are  known  as  frison- 
nets.  Floss  silk  is  not  used  for  weaving.  It  is  a  slack 
twisted  tram,  generally  composed  of  a  large  number  of 
threads  of  singles. 

Spun  Silk.  There  is  another  class  of  threads  made 
from  waste  silk  by  spinning  and  known  as  spun  silk. 
Waste  silks  include  the  pierced  cocoons,  that  is,  those 
from  which  the  moth  has  come  out  by  making  the  hole 
and  breaking  the  fibers  in  one  end  of  the  cocoon;  the 
waste  made  in  the  filatures  in  producing  raw  or  reeled 
silk,  chiefly  the  outside  fiber  of  the  cocoon  and  the  inside 
next  the  chrysalis;  and  also  the  waste  made  in  manu- 
facture. The  waste  silk  is  ungummed;  that  is,  the  gum 
is  removed  from  the  fibers  by  boiling  with  soap,  by 
macerating  or  retting,  or  by  chemical  reagents. 

After  the  gum  is  removed  from  the  cocoons,  they  are 
opened  and  combed,  most  of  the  chrysalis  shell  being 
removed.  The  remainder,  with  other  foreign  matter,  is 
picked  out  by  hand  from  the  combed  silk.  The  silk  is 
put  through  a  number  of  drawing  frames  to  get  the 
fibers  even  on  the  roving  frames,  where  it  first  takes 
the  form  of  thread,  then  on  the  spinning  frames, 
where  it  is  twisted.  If  it  is  to  be  used  as  singles, 
the  manufacture  ends  here.  In  two-  or  three-ply 
yarns,  the  singles  are  doubled,  twisted  again,  singed 
by  running  through  a  gas  flame,  cleaned  by  friction, 
controlled,  that  is,  the  knots  and  lumps  taken  out,  and 
then  reeled  into  skeins  for  dyeing  or  put  on  spools. 


SILK  209 

Spun  Numbers.  There  are  two  methods  in  general 
use  for  numbering  spun  silk.  In  the  French  system, 
the  number  is  based  on  the  singles,  by  the  meters  per 
kilogram;  two  and  three  cord  yarns  have  one-half, 
one-third,  etc.,  the  length  the  numbers  indicate. 
Thus- 

No.  100  singles  has  100,000  meters  per  kilogram. 

No.  2-100  has  50,000  meters  per  kilogram. 

No.  3-100  has  33,333  meters  per  kilogram. 

The  other  system  which  is  more  generally  used  in  this 
country,  is  the  English  system.  The  hank  is  840  yards, 
and  the  number  of  hanks  in  one  pound  avoirdupois  is 
the  count  of  the  yarn.  It  is  based  on  the  finished  yarn, 
and  singles,  two  or  three  cord  yarns  of  the  same  number 
all  have  the  same  yards  per  pound.  Thus  - 

No.  50  singles  has  42,000  yards  per  pound. 

No.  50-2  has  42,000  yards  per  pound. 

No.  50-3  has  42,000  yards  per  pound. 

Dyeing  Yarns.  Generally  speaking  there  are  two 
large  classes  into  which  silk  goods  may  be  divided, 
those  in  which  the  threads  are  colored  before  weaving 
and  called  yarn-dyed  goods,  and  those  dyed  or  printed 
after  weaving  and  called  piece-dyed  or  printed  goods. 
In  dyeing  yarns,  the  silk  is  first  ungummed  and  cleaned 
by  boiling  in  soap  and  water,  then  washed  in  cold 
water.  If  the  thread  is  to  be  weighted,  as  is  frequently 
done,  tin  salts,  iron,  or  other  heavy  material  is  deposited 
on  the  fiber.  If  carried  far,  this  is  injurious,  making 
the  silk  tender  and  weak.  Sometimes  there  is  more 
weighting  than  silk.  Yarns  are  usually  dyed  in  hot 


210  TEXTILES 

liquors,  aniline  colors  being  the  ones  in  most  common 
use  to-day,  though  other  dyes  are  used  for  special  pur- 
poses. Some  yarns  are  dyed  in  the  gum,  and  some 
with  a  part  of  the  gum  left  in.  After  dyeing,  they  are 
washed  in  cold  water,  dried,  and  wound  on  spools. 

Silk  Dyeing.  Silk  occupies  in  several  respects  an 
intermediate  position  between  the  animal  and  vege- 
table fibers.  Like  wool,  it  is  a  highly  nitrogenous 
body,  but  contains  no  sulphur.  It  readily  takes  up 
many  of  the  colors  which  can  be  worked  upon  vegetable 
fiber  by  the  aid  of  the  mordants.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  with  reference  to  a  large  number  of  aniline 
colors,  which  require  merely  to  be  dissolved  and  mixed 
with  perfectly  clear  water  in  the  dye  vessel.  The  great 
attraction  of  silk  for  these  colors  simplifies  silk  dyeing 
exceedingly.  The  sad  colors,  on  the  other  hand,  and 
especially  black,  are  in  many  cases  exceedingly  com- 
plex, the  main  object  of  the  dyer  being  not  so  much  to 
color  the  silk  as  to  increase  its  weight. 

Dyeing  black  on  silk  is  unquestionably  the  most 
important  branch  of  silk  dyeing,  and  it  has  probably 
received  more  attention  than  any  other  branch,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  it  has  been  brought  to  a  high  degree 
of  perfection.  Blacks  on  silks  are  produced  both  from 
natural  and  artificial  coloring  matters,  the  former  hav- 
ing, so  far,  retained  their  pre-eminence  despite  the 
recent  discoveries  of  chemists.  For  various  reasons 
coal-tar  colors  have  never  proved  successful  in  dyeing 
black  on  silk.  Since  the  discovery  of  America,  logwood 
blacks  have  formed  the  staple  of  the  black-silk  dyer, 


SILK 


211 


who  has  carried  their  production  to  a  high  degree  of 
excellence.  But  unfortunately,  besides  aiming  at  a  high 
state  of  perfection  in  the  actual  dyeing  operation,  the 
black-silk  dyer  has  also  aimed  at  increasing  the  weight 
of  the  dyed  silk,  so  that  nowadays  it  is  possible  for  him 


WINDING    SILK    ON    SWIFTS 


to  receive  ten  pounds  of  raw  silk  and  to  send  out 
fifty  pounds  of  black  silk,  the  extra  forty  pounds 
being  additions  made  in  the  process  of  dyeing. 

Logwood  black-silk  dyeing  consists  essentially  of 
alternate  dippings  in  separate  baths  with  the  mordant 
and  dyestuffs  suitable  for  producing  the  required  color 
and  weight.  The  number  of  dippings  and  the  length 


212  TEXTILES 

of  time  taken  in  each  operation  depend  on  the  intensity 
of  the  black  wanted  and  the  amount  of  weighting 
which  is  desired.  The  chief  substances  used  for  weight- 
ing are  lead  salts,  catechu,  iron,  and  nut-galls,  with  soap 
and  oil  to  soften  in  some  degree  the  harshness  of  the 
fabric  which  these  minerals  cause.  As  the  details  of 
the  operations  are  practically  the  same  for  all  kinds  of 
logwood  blacks  (raven,  jet,  crape,  dead  black,  etc.), 
the  method  for  producing  one  will  suffice  for  all.  The 
process  involves  several  distinct  operations,  as  follows: 

1.  The  Boiling  Off.     This  is  the  removal  of  the  gum 
and  natural  coloring  matter  in  the  silk.     It  is  accom- 
plished by  boiling  the  skeins  of  silk  in  water  and  good 
olive  oil  soap  for  about  one  hour.      This  dissolves  the 
gum  and  leaves  the  fiber  clean  and  glossy. 

2.  Mordanting.     This  is  done  in  a  bath  of  nitrate 
of  iron,  in  which  the  skeins  of  silk  are  allowed  to  remain 
one  hour.     The  silk  gains  some  in  weight  in  this  opera- 
tion by  absorbing  a  quantity  of  the  iron  in  the  bath. 
After  having  been  dipped  in  the  first  bath  three  or  four 
times,  it  is  ready  for  the  soap  and  iron  bath,  in  which 
it    is    repeatedly    immersed,    the    operation    causing    a 
deposit   of  iron-soap   on   the   fiber  which   adds   to   its 
weight,  but  at  the  same  time  does  not  lessen  its  flexi- 
bility and  softness.     Eight  dippings  in  the  iron  and  soap 
bath  increase  the  weight  of  the  silk  about  100  per  cent. 

3.  Blue  Bottoming.     The  next  operation  is  to   dye 
the  silk  blue,  which  is  done  by  immersing  it  in  a  solu- 
tion of  potash.     In  this  it  is  worked  for  half  an  hour, 
when  it  acquires  a  deep  blue  color.     It  is  then  taken 


SILK  213 

out,  and  after  rinsing  is  ready  for  the  "  weighting  " 
operations. 

4.  "  Weighting  "  Bath.  A  catechu  bath  is  now  pre- 
pared, in  which  the  silk  is  entered  and  worked  for  an 
hour,  and  then  allowed  to  steep  over  night.  The 
result  is  that  the  blue  on  the  silk  is  decomposed,  and 
the  goods  by  absorbing  the  tannin  in  the  catechu  in- 
crease in  weight  from  35  to  40  per  cent.  This  bath  is 
the  most  important  one  in  the  dyeing  of  "  weighted  " 
black  silks,  as  the  dyer  can  regulate  the  strength  of  the 
bath  by  the  addition  of  tin  crystals  so  as  to  increase 
the  weight  of  the  silk  to  an  astonishing  degree.  The 
proportion  of  tin  crystals  used  is  regulated  by  the  num- 
ber, of  iron  baths  that  have  previously  been  given  the 
silk;  if  two  baths  of  iron  have  been  given,  5  per  cent 
of  tin  crystals  are  used;  if  four  baths,  10  per  cent,  and 
so  on.  The  action  of  these  chemicals  is  somewhat  com- 
plex. All  that  is  known  is  that  by  reason  of  some  pecu- 
liar quality  possessed  by  silk  it  is  enabled  to  combine 
with  iron  and  tin,  and  that  exposure  to  the  air  after  the 
baths  fixes  these  chemicals  permanently  upon  the  fibers, 
thus  increasing  their  weight  to  almost  any  desired  ex- 
tent. Silk,  according  to  its  quality  and  weight,  will 
take  up  of  these  substances  from  50  to  200  per  cent 
without  creating  much  suspicion.  Instances  have  been 
known  in  which  silk  has  been  increased  nine  times  its 
own  weight.  All  the  operations  thus  far  have  had  for 
their  object  the  weighting  of  the  silk,  although  the 
blueing  and  the  catechu  baths  have  some  influence 
on  the  finished  result.  After  these  come  the  dyeing 


214  TEXTILES 

operations    proper,   two    in    number,    mordanting   and 
dyeing. 

5.  Mordanting.     A   bath   of   iron   liquor   heated   to 
130  degrees  F.  is  provided.     The  silk  is  entered,  worked 
well  for  one  hour,  then  wrung  out  and  hung  up  to  "  age  " 
for  two  hours,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  the  logwood 
dye. 

6.  Dyeing.  A  bath  of  logwood  liquor  is  prepared  to 
which  is  added  10  per  cent  of  fustic,  and  the  solution  is 
brought  to  a  temperature  of  150  degrees  F.     In  this  the 
silk  is  entered  and  worked  for  an  hour,  then  taken  out 
and  wrung  dry.     Sometimes  the  black  does  not  come 
up  full  enough,  and' in  such  cases  the  bath  is  repeated. 

7.  The  final  operation  has  for  its  object  the  restora- 
tion of  the  luster  and  suppleness  of  the  silk,  which  has 
to  some  extent  deteriorated  from  the  many  operations 
through   which   it   has   passed.     The   brightening   and 
softening  of  the  fiber  are  effected  by  immersing  the  silk 
in  a  bath  of  olive  oil  in  the  form  of  an  emulsion.     In 
this  the  silk  is  worked  until  it  is  thoroughly  impregnated 
with  the  oil,  when  it  is  taken  out  and  wrung  dry,  after 
which  it  is  ready  for  the  loom.     Practically  the  same 
process  is  followed  in  piece  dyeing,  though  only  inferior 
grades  of  silk  are  dyed  in  the  web. 

Colored  Silks.  This  class  of  silks  is  generally  purer 
than  black  and  sad-colored  silks.  It  is  not  nearly  so 
easy  to  weight  the  former  as  the  latter,  for  the  reason 
that  there  are  but  few  substances  capable  of  giving 
weight  which  do  not  interfere  with  the  effect  of  light 
colored  dyes.  The  weighting  agents  most  generally 


SILK  215 

used  are  sugar  and  acetate  of  lead.  The  weighting  by 
sugar  is  done  after  the  silk  is  dyed.  A  solution  is  made 
of  pure  lump  sugar  by  placing  it  in  a  large  copper  pan 
with  water  and  heating  until  dissolved.  In  this  bath 
the  silk  is  thoroughly  saturated,  and  then  dried  and 
finished;  or,  the  dipping  process  may  be  repeated 
several  times  if  desired.  One  dipping  will  weight  the 
silk  about  12  per  cent,  two  about  20  per  cent,  and  three 
about  30  per  cent.  In  a  solution  of  acetate  of  lead,  each 
dipping  will  weight  the  silk  about  8  per  cent,  and  these 
may  be  repeated  as  often  as  it  is  wished.  In  this  case 
the  weighting  is  generally  done  on  the  undyed,  boiled-off 
silk,  although  it  may  be  done  on  the  dyed  silk  if  the 
color  is  such  as  will  stand  the  acid. 

Mixed  Silk  Fabrics.  Until  lately  silk  was  invariably 
dyed  in  the  state  of  yarn.  When  the  silk  was  to  be 
woven  into  mixed  fabrics,  such  as  satin,  gloria,  etc., 
it  was  impossible  to  dye  both  fibers  exactly  the  same 
shade.  Formerly  such  fabrics  were  woven  with  the 
cotton  and  silk  yarns  dyed  separately,  care  being  taken 
to  match  them  as  closely  as  possible.  The  weaving  of 
dyed  yarns  of  different  fibers  is  open  to  the  objection 
that  when  the  fabric  comes  to  be  finished  there  is  a 
wide  difference  in  the  color,  no  matter  how  closely  they 
may  have  matched  in  the  beginning. 

Ribbons.  Ribbons  are  woven  several  pieces  in  one 
loom,  with  a  separate  shuttle  for  each  piece.  The 
shuttle  is  carried  through  the  shed  or  warp  by  a  rack 
and  pinion,  instead  of  being  thrown  through  as  in  broad 
goods;  otherwise  the  weaving  is  the  same. 


216  TEXTILES 

Velvets.  Velvets  and  other  pile  fabrics  are  woven 
in  two  pieces,  one  over  the  other,  with  the  pile  threads 
woven  back  and  forth  between  them.  A  knife  travels 
between  the  two  pieces  cutting  the  pile  threads  so  as  to 
leave  the  ends  standing  up  straight.  Velvets  used  to 
be  woven  over  wires  and  cut  by  hand,  but  this  method 
is  practically  obsolete. 

Piece  Dyeing.  If  the  goods  are  woven  with  the 
gum  still  in  the  silk,  it  must  be  taken  out  afterward, 
and  the  goods  either  dyed  in  the  piece  or  prepared  for 
printing. 

Printing.  The  most  primitive  method  of  printing 
is  by  the  use  of  stencils.  It  is  the  method  employed 
by  the  Japanese  and  Chinese.  Next  came  block  print- 
ing, which  is  still  extensively  used  in  Europe.  The 
pattern  is  raised  in  felt  on  wooden  blocks,  the  color 
taken  up  from  pads,  one  block  for  each  color.  The 
results  are  good,  but  the  work  is  very  slow.  Most  silk 
goods  are  to-day  machine  printed.  The  design  is  en- 
graved or  etched  on  copper  cylinders,  one  cylinder  for 
each  color;  the  color  thickened  with  gum  is  supplied 
by  rolls  running  against  the  cylinders,  and  the  surplus 
is  scraped  off  by  a  knife  blade,  leaving  only  that  in  the 
engraving  which  is  taken  up  by  the  cloth.  After  print- 
ing, the  cloth  is  steamed  to  set  the  colors,  and  then 
washed  in  order  to  remove  the  gum  used  to  thicken  the 
colors  for  printing. 

Finishing.  All  silk  goods,  whether  yarn  dyed  or 
piece  dyed  or  printed,  are  given  some  kind  of  finish; 
sometimes  it  is  no  more  than  is  necessary  to  smooth  out 


JACQUARD  SILK  LOOM 


218  TEXTILES 

the  wrinkles.  There  are  many  finishing  processes  by 
which  goods  may  be  treated.  They  are  run  through  gas 
flames  to  singe  off  loose  fiber,  and  over  steam  cylinders  to 
dry  and  straighten  them,  over  a  great  variety  of  sizing 
machines  to  stiffen  them  with  starch  or  glue.  There 
are  calenders  or  heavy  rolls  to  smooth  and  iron  them, 
steam  presses  of  great  power  to  press  them  out,  break- 
ing and  rubbing  machines  to  soften  them,  and  tenter- 
ing  machines  to  stretch  them  to  uniform  width.  There 
are  also  moireing  or  watering,  embossing,  and  various 
other  machines  for  special  purposes. 

Waterproofing.  One  of  the  worst  difficulties  with 
which  the  manufacturer  of  piece-dyed  and  printed  silk 
goods  has  to  contend  is  the  ease  with  which  they  be- 
come spotted  with  water,  and  for  a  number  of  years 
many  people  have  tried  to  prevent  this  by  various 
processes.  There  are  no  less  than  two  hundred  such 
processes  patented.  None  of  them  have  met  with  much 
success,  as  they  injured  the  feel  or  strength  of  the  goods. 
After  goods  are  finished  they  are  carefully  inspected 
for  imperfections,  measured,  and  wrapped  in  paper  and 
packed  in  cases  for  shipment.  The  complexity  and 
number  of  processes  for  treating  silk  goods  may  be 
realized  when  we  know  that  a  piece-dyed  or  printed 
fabric  is  handled  its  entire  length  between  fifty  and  one 
hundred  times  after  it  comes  from  the  loom,  sometimes 
even  more. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
PRINCIPAL    SILK    FABRICS 

Alma.  Cloth,  double  twilled  from,  left  to  right 
diagonally,  first  made  in  black  only  as  a  mourning 
fabric.  The  name  is  from  the  Egyptian,  as  applied  to 
a  mourner  or  a  singer  at  a  funeral. 

Barege.  Sheer  stuff  of  silk  and  wool  for  veiling, 
named  from  the  town  of  Bareges,  in  France. 

Bengaline.  An  imitation  of  an  old  silk  fabric  made 
for  many  centuries  in  Bengal,  India,  whence  the 
name.  The  weave  is  similar  to  that  of  ordinary  rep 
or  poplin,  being  a  simple  round-corded  effect.  The 
cord  is  produced  by  using  a  heavy  soft-spun  woolen 
weft  which  is  so  closely  covered  by  the  silk  warp  threads 
that  it  is  not  exposed  when  examined  from  the  wrong 
side.  The  same  weave  is  also  found  in  all-silk  goods, 
under  the  designation  of  all-silk  bengaline.  When 
cheapened  by  the  use  of  a  cotton  weft  in  place  of  wool 
the  fabric  is  known  as  cotton  bengaline,  although  the 
cotton  is  in  the  filling  only. 

'  Berber.  Satin-faced  fabric  of  light-weight  cloth.  It 
came  into  favor  about  the  time  of  the  defeat  of  the 
Berbers  by  General  Gordon  in  his  campaign  against  the 
Mahdi  in  North  Africa. 

Brocade.     Raised  figures  on  a  plain  ground. 

219 


220  TEXTILES 

Brocatel.  A  kind  of  brocade  used  for  draperies  and 
upholstery;  usually  raised  wool  figures  on  a  silk  ground. 

Bombazine.  Silk  warp,  wool  weft,  fine  twilled  cloth; 
originally  made  in  black  only  for  mourning.  It  is  used 
largely  for  mourning  hat  bands.  The  root  of  the  name 
is  bombyx,  the  Latin  for  silkworm. 

Chenille.  Cloth  of  a  fuzzy  or  fluffy  face;  woven  of 
cotton,  silk,  or  wool;  used  sometimes  for  dress  goods; 
more  generally  for  curtains  and  table  covers.  Chenille 
is  the  French  word  for  caterpillar,  which  the  single 
thread  of  the  cloth  resembles. 

Chiffon.  A  thin,  transparent  silk  muslin.  Although 
one  of  the  thinnest  and  gauziest  of  modern  silk  fabrics, 
it  is  relatively  strong  considering  its  lightness.  To 
convey  an  idea  of  the  fineness  of  the  thread  used  in 
its  manufacture,  it  is  stated  that  one  pound  of  it  will 
extend  a  distance  of  eight  miles.  In  the  process  of 
finishing  the  fabric  receives  a  dressing  of  pure  "  size." 
There  are  two  styles  of  finish,  called  respectively  the 
demi-  or  half  size  and  the  full  size.  Chiffon  finished  by 
full  sizing  is  comparatively  stiff;  while  the  demi-finish 
produces  a  softer  and  lighter  texture.  It  is  dyed  in  a 
great  variety  of  colors,  and  sometimes  is  printed  in  deli- 
cate patterns.  It  is  especially  adapted  for  home  and 
evening  wear,  and  is  used  for  neck  and  sleeve  trim- 
ming, drapery  over  silk  foundations,  fancy  work,  and 
millinery. 

China  Silk.  A  term  applied  to  plain  woven  silks 
manufactured  in  China.  The  term  China  silk  has  been 
adopted  in  the  United  States  in  recent  years  for  a  class 


PRINCIPAL   SILK   FABRICS  221 

of  machine-woven  silks  made  in  imitation  of  the  hand- 
loom  product.  These  imitations  are  narrow  in  width 
and  lack  the  soft,  lustrous  quality  of  Eastern  fabrics, 
and  are  also  free  from  the  uneven  threads.  China 
silks  are  distinguished  by  their  irregular  threads,  caused 
by  some  of  the  threads  being  heavier  than  others,  and 
their  extreme  softness. 

The  warp  and  filling  are  identical  in  size  and  color, 
and  being  woven  evenly  produce  a  beautiful  natural 
luster.  It  is  generally  plain  color,  although  the  figured 
goods  are  printed  in  much  the  same  manner  as  calico. 
It  is  used  for  gowns,  waists,  underclothing,  etc.  It 
launders  as  well  as  white  cotton. 

Crepe.  A  thin,  gauzy  fabric,  woven  in  loose  even 
threads  of  silk,  heavily  sized  or  gummed,  crimped  or 
creped  in  the  dyeing.  Crepe  was  first  used  in  black 
only  as  a  badge  of  mourning.  It  is  now  an  accepted 
dress  fabric,  made  in  colors  and  white  and  of  many 
materials.  The  name  signifies  to  crimp  or  crepe  with  a 
hot  iron. 

Crepe  de  Chine.  A  soft,  lustrous  silk  crepe,  the 
surface  of  which  is  smoother  than  that  of  the  ordi- 
nary varieties.  It  is  woven  as  a  plain  weave  with 
part  of  the  warp  threads  right  twisted  and  the  rest 
left  twisted.  It  is  dyed  almost  any  color  and  figured  or 
printed. 

Eolienne.  Sheer  cloth  of  silk,  silk  and  wool,  or  silk 
and  cotton,  woven  in  fine  card  effect.  The  name  comes 
from  the  Greek  ^Eolus,  god  of  the  winds. 

Foulard.     Plain  silk  cloth,  sold  as  dress  goods;   origi- 


222  TEXTILES 

nally  made  for  handkerchiefs  only.  The  name  is  French 
for  silk  handkerchief. 

Glace.  Plain,  lustrous  silk,  yarn  dyed,  with  warp 
of  one  color,  and  weft  of  another.  The  name  is  applied 
to  all  fabrics  having  two  tones.  Glace  is  French  for 
icy,  having  an  icy  appearance. 

India  Silk.  A  name  applied  to  the  plain  woven  silks 
manufactured  in  India  on  the  primitive  hand  looms. 
The  warp  and  weft  are  woven  evenly  and  produce  a 
beautiful  natural  luster.  It  is  similar  to  China  and 
Japanese  silk.  In  fact  most  of  these  fabrics  come 
from  China  and  Japan,  India  silk  being  almost  unknown 
in  this  country  as  so  little  of  it  is  exported.  The  dura- 
bility of  these  silks  is  about  the  same,  and  there  is  little 
difference  in  the  prices. 

Japanese  Silk.  A  term  applied  to  the  plain  woven 
silk  manufactured  in  Japan.  The  warp  and  filling  of 
this  fabric  are  identical  in  size  and  color,  and  being 
woven  evenly  produce  a  beautiful  natural  luster.  The 
weave  is  smooth  and  soft  in  quality.  It  is  dyed  in  plain 
colors.  The  figured  goods  are  printed  in  much  the 
same  way  as  calico.  It  is  used  for  waists,  gowns,  and 
fancy  underwear. 

Jersey  Cloth.  Silk  jersey  cloth  is  popular  at  present. 
It  is  a  knitted  silk  fabric,  not  woven,  and  is  generally 
dyed  in  plain  colors.  It  is  expensive  and  is  used  for 
women's  dresses,  wraps,  and  silk  gloves. 

Meteor.  Crepe  de  meteor  was  originally  a  trade 
name  for  crepe  de  chine,  but  now  applied  to  a  fabric 
which  is  distinguishable  from  crepe  de  chine. 


PRINCIPAL   SILK   FABRICS  223 

Moire.  Moire  is  a  waved  or  watered  effect  produced 
upon  the  surface  of  various  kinds  of  textile  fabrics, 
especially  on  grosgrain  silk  and  woolen  moreen.  This 
watered  effect  is  produced  by  the  use  of  engraved  rollers 
and  high  pressure  on  carded  material.  The  object  of 
developing  upon  woven  textiles  the  effect  known  as 
moire  is  the  production  of  a  peculiar  luster  resulting 
from  the  divergent  reflection  of  the  light  rays  on  the 
material,  a  divergence  brought  about  by  compressing 
and  flattening  the  warp  and  filling  threads  in  places, 
and  so  producing  a  surface  the  different  parts  of  which 
reflect  the  light  differently.  The  moire  effect  may  be 
obtained  on  silk,  worsted,  or  cotton  fabrics,  though  it  is 
impossible  to  develop  it  on  other  than  a  grained  or  fine 
corded  weave.  The  pressure  applied  to  the  material 
being  uneven,  the  grained  surface  is  flattened  in  the 
parts  desired.  In  the  Middle  Ages  moire  was  held  in 
high  esteem,  and  continues  to  enjoy  that  distinction 
down  to  the  present  day.  It  is  used  for  women's 
dresses,  capes,  and  for  facings,  trimmings,  etc. 

Mozambique.  Grenadines,  with  large  colored  flower 
designs  in  relief. 

Organzine.  Silk  fabric,  made  with  warp  and  filling 
of  the  same  size.  Organzine  is  the  name  given  the 
twisted  silk  thread  in  Italy,  where  it  is  made. 

Panne.  This  name  is  applied  to  a  range  of  satin- 
faced  velvet  or  silk  fabrics  which  show  a  high  luster 
produced  by  pressure.  The  word  panne  is  the  French 
for  plush. 

Peau  de  Soie.     Literally,  skin  of  silk.     A  variety  of 


224  TEXTILES 

heavy,  soft-finished,  plain-colored  dress  silk,  woven 
with  a  pattern  of  fine  close  ribs  extending  weftwise  of 
the  fabric.  An  eight-shaft  satin  with  one  point  added 
to  the  original  spots  on  the  right  or  left,  imparting  to  the 
fabric  a  somewhat  grainy  appearance.  The  best  grades 
of  peau  de  soie  present  the  same  appearance  on  both 
sides,  being  reversible.  The  lower  grades  are  finished 
on  one  side  only. 

Plush.  Long  piled  fabric  of  the  velvet  order. 
Peluche,  the  origin  of  the  name,  is  French  for  shaggy. 

Pongee.  Said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Chinese  punchi, 
signifying  home- made  or  home  woven.  Another  sug- 
gestion is  that  the  word  is  a  corruption  of  pun-shih,  a 
native  or  wild  silk.  A  soft,  unbleached,  washable  silk, 
woven  from  the  cocoons  of  the  wild  silkworm,  which 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  scrub  oak.  Immense  quanti- 
ties in  a  raw  state  are  annually  shipped  from  China  to 
this  country  and  Europe,  where  they  are  bleached, 
dyed,  and  ornamented  with  various  styles  of  designs. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  a  variety  of  dress  goods 
woven  with  a  wild  silk  warp  and  a  fine  worsted  weft. 

Popeline.  A  French  name.  The  French  fabric  is 
said  to  have  been  first  introduced  during  the  early  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century  at  Avignon,  then  a  papal 
diocese,  and  to  have  been  so  called  in  compliment  to  the 
reigning  pope.  A  fabric  constructed  with  a  silk  warp 
and  a  filling  of  wool  heavier  than  the  silk  which  gives  it 
a  corded  surface.  Poplin  manufacture  was  introduced 
into  Ireland  in  1693  by  a  colony  of  fugitive  French 
Huguenots.  The  industry  concentrated  at  Dublin, 


PRINCIPAL   SILK   FABRICS  225 

where  it  has  since  remained.  The  Irish  product  has 
been  celebrated  for  its  uniformly  fine  quality.  It  is 
always  woven  on  hand  looms,  which  accounts  for  the 
high  price  it  commands  in  English  and  American  mar- 
kets. The  wool  used  is  a  fine  grade  of  Cape  or  Austra- 
lian, which  is  the  most  suitable  in  texture  and  length 
of  fiber.  The  silk  is  unweighted  Chinese  organzine. 
The  result  is  a  rich,  handsome  fabric  resembling  whole 
silk  goods  in  appearance,  but  inferior  to  them  in  dura- 
bility and  produced  at  a  much  less  cost.  It  is  used  for 
ladies'  waists,  wraps,  and  gowns. 

Figured  Poplin.  A  stout  variety,  ornamented  in  the 
loom  with  figures.  The  ground  is  composed  of  clear, 
sharp  cords  extending  across  the  web.  It  is  sometimes 
woven  entirely  of  silk,  but  oftener  of  silk  and  wool. 
Used  for  high-class  upholstery  purposes,  and  for  cur- 
tains and  hangings. 

Terry  Poplin.  A  silk  and  wool  dress  fabric  in  the 
construction  of  which  the  alternate  warps  are  thrown 
upon  the  surface  in  the  form  of  minute  loops. 

Sarsenet.  A  thin,  soft-finished  silk  fabric  of  a 
veiling  kind,  now  used  as  millinery  lining.  The  name 
comes  from  the  Arab  Saracens,  who  wore  it  in  their 
head-dress. 

Satin.  When  satin  first  appeared  in  trade  in  Southern 
Europe  it  was  called  aceytuin.  The  term  slipped 
through  early  Italian  lips  into  zetain,  and  coming  west- 
ward the  i  was  dropped,  and  smoothed  itself  into  satin. 
There  is  evidence  that  the  material  was  known  as  early 
as  the  fourteenth  century  in  England,  and  probably  in 


226  TEXTILES 

France  and  Spain  previous  to  that  time,  though  under 
other  names. 

In  the  weaving  of  most  silk  fabrics  the  warp  and 
filling  intersect  each  other  every  alternate  time  (as  in 
plain  weaving),  or  every  third  or  fourth  time  (as  in  ordi- 
nary twill  weaving)  in  regular  order;  but  in  weaving, 
satin  the  fine  silk  warp  only  appears  upon  the  surface, 
the  filling  being  effectually  covered  up  and  hidden. 
Instead  of  making  the  warp  pass  under  and  over  the 
filling  every  alternate  time,  or  over  two  or  three  filling 
threads  in  regular  order,  it  is  made  to  pass  over  eight, 
ten,  twelve  or  more  filling  threads;  then  under  one  and 
over  eight  more,  and  so  on.  In  passing  over  the  filling, 
however,  the  warps  do  not  interweave  at  regular  inter- 
vals, which  would  produce  a  twill,  but  at  irregular 
intervals,  thus  producing  an  even,  close,  smooth  sur- 
face, and  one  capable  of  reflecting  the  light  to  the  best 
advantage.  The  filling  of  low  grade  satin  is  generally 
cotton,  while  in  the  better  goods  it  is  silk.  Common 
satin  is  what  is  technically  known  as  an  eight-leaf  twill, 
the  order  in  which  the  filling  thread  rises  being  once  in 
eight  times.  Rich  satins  may  consist  of  sixteen-leaf  to 
twenty-leaf  twills.  The  cheap  qualities  of  cotton-back 
satin,  particularly  those  that  sell  at  wholesale  for  fifty 
cents  and  under,  are  not  made  to  any  extent  in  this 
country,  our  manufacturers  being  unable  to  compete 
with  foreign  mills  in  these  lines. 

Satins  are  woven  with  the  face  downward,  because 
in  weaving,  say  a  sixteen-leaf  satin,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary, were  the  surface  upward,  to  keep  fifteen  heddles 


PRINCIPAL   SILK   FABRICS  227 

raised  and  one  down,  whereas  with  the  face  of  the  cbth 
under,  only  one  heddle  has  to  be  raised  at  a  time.  When 
first  taken  from  the  loom  the  face  of  satin  is  somewhat 
flossy  and  rough,  and  hence  requires  to  be  dressed. 
This  operation  consists  of  passing  the  pieces  over  heated 
metal  cylinders  which  remove  the  minute  fibrous  ends, 
and  also  increase  the  natural  brilliance  of  the  silk. 
Cotton-back  satins  are  used  by  coffin  manufacturers, 
fancy  box  makers,  fan  makers,  and  by  the  cutting-up 
trade.  Rich  satins  are  used  in  making  ladies'  gowns 
and  waists. 

Soleil.  Satin-faced  cloth,  woven  with  a  fine  line,  a 
stripe  running  lengthwise  of  the  piece.  It  is  usually 
made  in  solid  colors  and  piece  dyed.  Soleil  is  French 
for  sun,  and  applies  to  the  brightness  of  the  finished 
cloth. 

Taffeta.  Derived  from  Persian  taftah.  Taffeta  is  one 
of  the  oldest  weaves  known,  silk  under  this  name  having 
been  in  constant  use  since  the  fourteenth  century. 
During  this  long  period  the  term  has  been  applied  at 
different  times  to  different  materials.  It  is  a  thin, 
glossy  silk  of  plain  texture  or  woven  in  lines  so  fine  as 
to  appear  plain  woven.  The  weave  is  capable  of  many 
effects  in  the  way  of  shot  and  changeable  arrangements, 
which  are  produced  by  threads  of  different  colors  rather 
than  by  any  special  disposition  of  warp  and  filling, 
"affeta  has  the  same  appearance  on  both  sides.  It  is 
piece  dyed  in  numberless  plain  colors,  and  also  pro- 
duced in  a  great  variety  of  ornamental  patterns,  such  as 
fancy  plaids,  cords,  and  stripes  (both  printed  and  woven). 


228  TEXTILES 

The  following  considerations  contribute  chiefly  to  the 
perfection  of  taffetas,  viz.:  the  silk,  the  water,  and  the 
fire.  The  silk  must  not  only  be  of  the  finest  kind,  but 
it  must  be  worked  a  long  time  before  it  is  used.  The 
watering,  which  is  given  lightly  by  any  acidulous  fluid, 
is  intended  to  produce  the  fine  luster,  and  lastly,  the 
fire  and  pressure  which  have  a  particular  manner  of 
application.  Its  wearing  qualities  are  not  of  the  best. 
The  cloth  cracks  or  breaks,  especially  if  plaited.  It  is 
used  for  gowns,  shirt-waists,  linings,  petticoats,  etc. 

Tulle.  Openwork  silk  net;  made  on  the  pillow  as 
lace  by  young  women  of  Tulle,  France. 

Velour.  French  for  velvet.  A  trade  term  of  some- 
what loose  application,  being  used  indiscriminately  to 
describe  a  great  variety  of  textures  so  constructed  or 
finished  as  to  present  a  velvet-like  surface.  It  is  usu- 
ally a  velvety  fabric  made  of  coarse  wool  yarn  and 
silk.  Velour  is  woven  with  a  coarse  stiff  pile  after 
the  manner  of  plush;  while  at  present  it  is  made  of  jute, 
cotton,  and  worsted,  it  was  originally  constructed  of 
linen.  It  is  produced  in  numberless  forms,  both  plain 
and  in  fancy  effects. 

Velvet.  From  the  Italian  velluto,  feeling  woolly  to 
the  touch,  as  a  woolly  pelt  or  hide.  Fine  velvet  is 
made  wholly  of  silk. 

Velveteen.  An  imitation  velvet,  made  of  cotton, 
usually  with  plain  back,  not  twilled,  as  silk  velvet. 

Tabby  Velvet.  The  lowest  grade  of  cotton  velvet, 
used  for  covering  cheap  coffin  lining  cases,  sold  by  the 
inch  in  widths  which  range  from  sixteen  to  thirty-two 


PRINCIPAL   SILK   FABRICS 


229 


inches.     Originally  made  in  Bagdad  for  wall  covering, 
its  name  being  derived  from  a  section  of  that  city. 

Voile.  From  the  French  voile,  meaning  a  veil,  a 
light  fabric  usually  more  or  less  transparent,  intended  to 
conceal  the  features  in  whole  or  in  part  or  to  serve  as  a 
screen  against  sunlight,  dust,  insects,  etc.,  or  to  empha- 
size or  preserve  the  beauty.  The  custom  of  wearing  veils 
had  its  origin  in  the  early  ages  in  the  desire  of  semi- 
savage  man  to  hide  away  the  woman  of  his  choice,  and 
is  a  survival  of  the  ancient  custom  of  hiding  women 
that  is  found  even  down  to  the  present  day  in  Eastern 
countries.  Voile  is  a  transparent,  wiry 'material  with  a 
square  mesh. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
ARTIFICIAL   SILK 

Silk  Cotton.  On  account  of  the  high  price  of  silk 
various  attempts  have  been  made  to  find  satisfactory 
substitutes  for  it.  There  are  certain  seed  coverings  of 
plants  that  contain  very  fine  hair-like  fibers  with  a 
luster  almost  equal  to  silk,  but  the  staples  are  short,  and 
the  texture  weak.  The  Kapok  plant  furnishes  most 
of  the  commercial  silk  cotton  on  the  market.  The 
fibers  of  Kapok  are  thin  and  transparent.  They  are 
extremely  light,  and  the  length  is  less  than  half  an  inch. 
Silk  cotton  has  a  smooth  surface  and  therefore  cannot 
be  spun  like  true  cotton  which  has  corded  edges. 

Artificial  Silk.  Since  seed  hairs  are  composed,  like  all 
vegetable  fibers,  of  cellulose,  attempts  have  been  made 
to  prepare  an  artificial  silk  product  from  waste  paper 
-  that  is,  by  treating  waste  paper  or  wood  or  cotton 
fibers  with  various  chemicals  in  order  to  obtain  pure 
cellulose.  This  artificial  silk  is  perhaps  the  most  in- 
teresting of  artificial  fibers,  but  its  manufacture  is 
dangerous,  owing  to  the  ease  with  which  it  catches  fire 
and  explodes.  Cellulose,  chemically  treated,  can  be 
transformed  into  a  fluid  solution  known  as  collodion. 
The  collodion  is  placed  in  steel  cylinders  and  expelled 
by  pressure  through  capillary  tubes.  After  drying, 

230 


ARTIFICIAL   SILK  231 

denitration,  and  washing,  it  may  be  spun  and  dyed  like 
natural  silk.  Colored  threads  may  be  produced  by  the 
addition  of  certain  dyes. 

Artificial  silk  bears  a  deceptive  resemblance  to  the 
natural  article,  and  has  nearly  the  same  luster.  It 
lacks  the  tensile  strength  and  elasticity,  and  is  of  higher 
specific  gravity  than  true  silk. 

Tests.  A  simple  way  of  recognizing  artificial  silk  is 
by  testing  the  threads  under  moisture,  as  follows:  First, 
unravel  a  few  threads  of  the  suspected  fabric,  place 
them  in  the  mouth  and  masticate  them  vigorously. 
Artificial  silk  readily  softens  under  this  operation  and 
breaks  up  into  minute  particles,  and  when  pulled 
between  the  fingers  shows  no  thread,  but  merely  a 
mass  of  cellulose  or  pulp.  Natural  silk,  no  matter  how 
thoroughly  masticated,  will  retain  its  fibrous  strength. 
The  artificial  silk  offers  no  resistance  to  the  teeth, 
which  readily  go  through  it;  whereas  natural  silk 
resists  the  action  of  the  teeth. 


CHAPTER  XX 
SUBSTITUTES  FOR   COTTON 

ON  account  of  the  high  price  of  cotton  various  experi- 
ments have  been  made,  in  an  effort  to  replace  it  with 
fiber  from  wood  pulp,  grasses,  leaves,  and  other  plants. 

Wood  Pulp.  A  Frenchman  has  discovered  a  process, 
la  soyeuse,  of  making  spruce  wood  pulp  into  a  sub- 
stitute for  cotton.  Although  it  is  called  a  substitute, 
the  samples  show  that  it  takes  dye,  bleaching,  and 
finishing  more  brilliantly  than  the  cotton  fiber.  It 
resists  boiling  in  water  or  caustic  potash  solution  for 
some  minutes,  and  does  not  burn  more  quickly  than 
cotton.  The  fiber  can  be  made  of  any  length,  as  is  also 
the  case  with  artificial  silk.  The  strength  of  the  yarn 
apparently  exceeds  cotton,  and  the  cost  of  manufacture 
is  much  lower.  Arrangements  are  being  made  in  Europe 
for  the  extensive  production  of  this  fiber. 

Ramie.  Ramie  or  China  grass  is  a  soft,  silky,  and 
extremely  strong  fiber.  It  grows  in  southwestern  Asia, 
is  cultivated  commercially  in  China,  Formosa,  and 
Japan,  and  is  a  fiber  of  increasing  importance.  Ramie 
is  a  member  of  the  nettle  family  and  attains  a  height  of 
from  four  to  eight  feet.  After  the  stalks  are  cleaned 
of  a  gummy  substance,  insoluble  in  water,  it  is  known 
as  China  grass,  and  is  used  in  China  for  summer  clothing. 

232 


SUBSTITUTES   FOR   COTTON  233 

In  Europe  and  America  by  the  use  of  modern  machinery 
and  chemical  processes  the  fiber  is  cleaned  effectively 
and  cheaply.  After  it  is  bleached  and  combed  it  makes 
a  fine  silky  fiber,  one-half  the  weight  of  linen,  and  three 
times  stronger  than  hemp.  It  is  used  in  Europe  to  make 
fabrics  that  resemble  silk,  and  is  also  used  in  making 
underwear  and  velvets.  With  other  fabrics  it  is  em- 
ployed as  a  filling  for  woolen  warps.  It  will  probably 
be  used  widely  in  the  United  States  as  soon  as  cheaper 
methods  of  cleaning  are  devised. 

Pineapple  and  Other  Fibers.  Other  fibers,  of  which 
that  from  the  pineapple  is  the  most  important,  are  used 
for  textile  purposes  in  China,  South  America,  parts  of 
Africa,  Mexico,  and  Central  America.  Their  use  has 
not  been  extensive  on  account  of  high  cost  of  produc- 
tion. The  silk  from  the  pineapple  is  very  light  and  of 
excellent  quality. 

Spun  Glass.  When  a  glass  rod  is  heated  in  a  flame 
until  perfectly  soft  it  can  be  drawn  out  in  the  form  of 
very  fine  threads  which  may  be  used  in  the  production  of 
handsome  silky  fabrics.  Spun  glass  can  be  produced 
in  colors;  but  on  account  of  the  low  elasticity  of  these 
products,  their  practical  value  is  small,  though  the 
threads  are  exceedingly  uniform  and  have  beautiful 
luster.  Spun  glass  is  used  by  chemists  for  filtering 
strong  acid  solutions. 

A  kind  of  glass  wool  is  produced  by  drawing  out  to  a 
capillary  thread  two  glass  rods  of  different  degrees  of 
hardness.  On  cooling  they  curl  up,  in  consequence  of 
the  different  construction  of  the  two  constituent  threads. 


234  TEXTILES 

Metallic  Threads.  Metallic  threads  have  always 
been  used  for  decorating,  particularly  in  rich  fabrics. 
Fine  golden  threads,  as  well  as  silver  gilt  threads,  and 
silver  threads  and  copper  wire,  have  been  used  in  many 
of  the  so-called  Cyprian  gold  thread  fabrics,  so  renowned 
for  their  beauty  and  permanence  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
These  threads  are  now  produced  by  covering  flax  or  hemp 
threads  with  a  gilt  of  fine  texture. 

Slag  Wool.  Slag  wool  is  obtained  by  allowing  molten 
slag  (generally  from  iron)  to  run  into  a  pan  fitted  with  a 
steam  injector  which  blows  the  slag  into  fibers.  The 
fibers  are  cooled  by. running  them  through  water,  and  the 
finished  product  is  used  as  a  packing  material. 

Asbestos.  Asbestos  is  a  silicate  of  magnesium  and 
lime,  containing  in  addition  iron  and  aluminum.  It  is 
found  in  Savoy,  the  Pyrenees,  Northern  Italy,  Canada, 
and  some  parts  of  the  United  States.  Asbestos  usually 
occurs  in  white  or  greenish  glassy  fibers,  sometimes 
combined  in  a  compact  mass,  and  sometimes  easily 
separable,  elastic,  and  flexible.  Canadian  asbestos  is 
almost  pure  white,  and  has  long  fibers.  Asbestos  can 
be  spun  into  fine  thread  and  woven  into  rope  or  yarn, 
but  as  it  is  difficult  to  spin  these  fibers  alone,  they  are 
generally  mixed  with  a  little  cotton,  which  is  afterwards 
disposed  of  by  heating  the  finished  fabric  to  incandes- 
cence. Because  of  its  incombustible  nature  asbestos 
is  used  where  high  temperatures  are  necessary,  as  in 
the  packing  of  steam  joints,  steam  cylinders,  hot  parts 
of  machines,  and  for  fire  curtains  in  theatres,  hotels, 
etc.  It  is  difficult  to  dye. 


APPENDIX 

Testing  Textile  Fabrics.  This  is  an  age  of  adul- 
teration, and  next  to  food  there  is  probably  no  com- 
modity that  is  adulterated  as  much  as  the  clothing  we 
wear.  Large  purchasers  of  textile  fabrics  and  various 
administrative  bodies,  such  as  army  clothing  depart- 
ments, railway  companies,  etc.,  have  adopted  definite 
specifications  to  ensure  having  good  material  and  work- 
manship. Before  the  fabrics  are  accepted  they  are 
examined  carefully  by  certain  tests  to  see  if  they  meet 
the  requirements.  Wholesale  and  retail  merchants  in- 
sist on  various  conditions  when  purchasing  fabrics  in 
order  to  conform  to  the  increasing  needs  of  the  public. 
Hence  every  manufacturer,  buyer,  or  dealer  in  fabrics 
should  be  familiar  with  the  tests  used  to  determine  the 
quality  of  goods  he  is  about  to  buy. 

The  tests  used  are  as  follows: 

1.  Identification  of  the  style  of  weaving. 

2.  Testing  the  breaking  strength  and  the  elasticity  by 
the  dynamometer. 

3.  Determining  the  "count"  of  warp  and  filling. 

4.  Determining  the  shrinkage. 

5.  Testing  the  constituents  of  warp  and  of  filling. 

6.  Testing  the  finish  and  dressing  materials. 

7.  Testing  the  fastness  of  the  dye. 

235 


236  APPENDIX 

Directions  for  Determining  the  Style  of  Weave. 
In  examining  a  fabric  for  the  weave  it  is  first  necessary 
to  determine  the  direction  of  the  warp  and  filling  threads. 
This  is  a  very  simple  matter  in  a  great  many  fabrics  that 
have  a  selvedge  —  the  warp  must  be  parallel  to  the 
selvedge. 

In  fabrics  that  have  been  fulled,  raised,  and  cropped, 
as  buckskin,  flannel,  etc.,  the  direction  of  the  nap  will 
indicate  the  direction  of  the  warp,  since  the  nap  runs  in 
this  direction. 

In  the  case  of  fabrics  with  doubled  and  single  threads, 
the  doubled  threads  are  always  found  in  the  warp. 

In  fabrics  composed  of  cotton  and  woolen  threads 
running  in  different  directions,  the  cotton  yarn  usually 
forms  the  warp  and  the  woolen  yarn  the  filling.  Then 
again  the  warp  threads  of  all  fabrics  are  more  tightly 
twisted  than  the  filling  threads,  and  are  separated  at 
more  regular  intervals. 

Sometimes  in  stiffened  or  starched  goods  threads 
running  in  only  one  direction  can  be  seen.  In  this 
case  they  are  the  warp  threads. 

If  one  set  of  threads  appears  stiffer  and  straighter 
than  the  other,  the  former  may  be  regarded  as  warp, 
while  the  rough  and  crooked  threads  are  the  filling. 
The  yarn  also  gives  one  a  hint,  since  the  better,  longer, 
and  higher  number  material  constitutes  the  warp,  while 
the  thicker  yarn  the  filling. 

The  direction  of  the  twist  of  the  thread  is  conclu- 
sive; if  one  set  has  a  strong  right  twist  and  the  other 
a  left  twist  the  first  is  the  warp. 


APPENDIX  237 

After  determining  the  direction  of  the  warp  and 
filling,  the  next  point  is  to  determine  the  interlacing  of 
the  warp  and  filling  threads  —  the  weave.  This  may 
be  done  by  inspection  or  by  means  of  a  pick-glass  and 
needle.  The  weave  may  be  plotted  on  design  paper 
(plotting  paper),  the  projecting  warp  threads  being 
indicated  by  filling  up  the  corresponding  square,  and 
leaving  those  referring  to  the  filling  threads  blank. 
In  this  way  the  weaving  pattern  of  the  sample  is  ob- 
tained, and  serves  as  a  guide  to  the  weaver  in  making 
the  fabric,  as  well  as  for  the  preparation  of  the  pattern 
cards  for  the  Jacquard  loom. 

Testing  the  Strength  and  Elasticity  of  a  Fabric. 
The  old-fashioned  plan  of  testing  cloth  by  tearing  it 
by  the  hand  is  unreliable,  because  tearing  frequently 
requires  only  a  certain  skilled  knack  whereby  the 
best  material  can  be  pulled  in  two.  In  this  way  an 
experienced  man  may  tell  good  from  bad  cloth,  but 
he  cannot  determine  slight  differences  in  quality,  because 
he  has  exerted  his  strength  so  often  that  his  capacity  to 
distinguish  the  actual  force  has  disappeared. 

The  best  means  of  determining  the  strength  of  a 
fabric  is  by  means  of  a  mechanical  dynamometer,1  which 
expresses  the  tensile  strength  of  the  fabric  in  terms  of 
weight.  The  machine  is  very  useful  to  the  manufacturer 
because  it  enables  him  to  compare  accurately  his  various 
products  with  those  of  his  competitors.  The  value  of 
these  tests  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact  that  all 

1  The  testing  apparatus  may  be  obtained  from  any  textile  manufac- 
turing company,  such  as  Alfred  Suter,  487  Broadway,  New  York. 


238  APPENDIX 

army  clothing  departments,  etc.,  require  their  supplies 
of  cloth,  etc.,  to  pass  a  definite  test  for  strength. 

Breaking  tests  also  afford  the  most  certain  proof  to 
bleachers  of  cotton  and  linen  goods  as  to  whether  the 
bleaching  has  burned  or  weakened  the  goods.  The 
same  test  will  quickly  determine  whether  a  fabric  has 
been  improperly  treated  in  the  laundry. 

Determining  the  Count  of  Warp  and  Filling  Threads. 
Every  fabric  must  contain  a  certain  count  of  warp  and 
filling  threads  —  a  definite  number  within  a  certain 
space  for  each  strength  of  yarn  employed.  A  fabric 
is  not  up  to  the  standard  of  density  when  less  than  the 
requisite  number  of  warp  or  filling  threads  per  inch  is 
found.  For  example,  if  a  buyer  was  told  that  a  fabric 
is  80  square,  that  is,  eighty  warp  threads  and  eighty 
filling  threads  to  the  inch,  and  on  examination  found 
only  72  square,  he  would  immediately  reject  the  goods. 

The  count  of  warp  and  filling  is  determined  by  means 
of  a  pick-glass  —  a  small  mounted  magnifying  glass  - 
the  base  of  which  contains  an  opening  of  one-half  inch 
by  one  quarter  inch,  or  one  quarter  inch  by  one  quarter 
inch.  If  the  pick-glass  is  placed  on  the  fabric  the 
number  of  warp  and  filling  threads  may  be  counted, 
and  the  result  multiplied  by  either  two  or  four,  so 
as  to  give  the  number  of  threads  to  the  inch.  For 
example,  if  I  count  twenty  picks  and  twenty  threads 
on  a  one  quarter-inch  edge,  there  are  eighty  picks 
and  eighty  threads  to  the  inch.  A  more  accurate 
result  can  be  obtained  by  using  a  pick-glass  with  a 
one-inch  opening. 


APPENDIX  239 

Determination  of  Shrinkage.  A  very  important  factor 
in  the  value  of  a  fabric  is  the  shrinkage.  The  extent 
of  this  may  be  determined  by  pouring  hot  water  over  a 
sample  of  about  twelve  by  twenty  inches,  and  leaving 
the  fabric  immersed  over  night,  then  drying  it  at  a  mod- 
erate temperature  without  stretching.  The  difference 
in  length  gives  the  shrinkage,  which  is  usually  expressed 
in  percentage. 

Determination  of  Weight.  Buyers  and  sellers  of  dry 
goods,  when  traveling,  are  anxious  to  determine  the 
weight  of  fabrics  they  examine.  This  may  be  done  by 
means  of  small  pocket  balances  so  constructed  as  to 
give  the  number  of  ounces  to  the  yard  of  a  fabric. 

Testing  the  Constituents  of  the  Warp  and  Filling. 
Take  a  sample  piece  of  the  cloth  to  be  examined  —  the 
piece  must  be  large  enough  to  contain  specimens  of  all 
the  different  kinds  of  yarn  present  in  the  material  — 
and  separate  all  the  filling  and  warp  threads.  Be  sure 
that  all  double  threads  are  untwisted. 

Combustion  Test;  Test  for  Vegetable  and  Animal 
Fibers.  Burn  separately  a  sample  of  the  untwisted 
warp  and  filling  threads.  If  one  or  both  burn  quickly 
without  a  greasy  odor,  they  are  vegetable  fibers,  cotton 
or  linen.  If  one  or  both  burn  slowly  and  give  off  a 
greasy  odor,  they  are  animal  fibers,  wool  or  silk.  This 
test  is  not  conclusive,  and  further  chemical  examina- 
tion —  acid  test  —  must  be  made  to  ascertain  whether 
wool  is  pure  or  mixed  with  cotton. 

Acid  Test.  The  vegetable  fibers,  cotton  and  linen, 
are  distinguished  from  those  of  animal  origin  by  their 


240  APPENDIX 

behavior  in  the  presence  of  acids  and  alkalies.  The 
vegetable  are  insoluble  when  boiled  with  a  4  per  cent 
sodium  hydrate  solution,  but  readily  clear  or  carbonize 
when  saturated  with  a  3  per  cent  sulphuric  acid 
solution  and  allowed  to  dry  at  a  high  temperature  in  a 
hot  closet.  Wool  on  the  other  hand  is  not  affected  by 
the  action  of  weak  sulphuric  acid. 

Cotton  Distinguished  from  Linen.  If  the  fibers  are 
vegetable,  cotton  may  be  distinguished  from  linen 
by  staining  the  fibers  with  fuchsine.  If  the  fibers  turn 
red,  and  this  coloration  disappears  on  the  addition  of 
ammonia,  they  are  cotton,  if  the  red  color  remains  the 
fibers  are  linen.  Whenever  cotton  yarn  is  used  to  adul- 
terate other  fabrics,  it  wears  shabby  and  loses  its  bright- 
ness. When  it  is  used  to  adulterate  linen,  it  becomes 
fuzzy  through  wear.  One  may  detect  it  in  linen  by 
rolling  the  goods  between  thumb  and  finger.  Linen  is 
a  heavier  fabric,  and  wrinkles  much  more  readily  than 
cotton.  It  wears  better,  and  has  an  exquisite  freshness 
that  is  not  noticed  in  cotton  fabrics. 

Silk  Distinguished  from  Wool.  Place  the  fabric  or 
threads  containing  animal  fibers  in  cold,  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid.  If  silk  is  present  it  will  dissolve,  while 
wool  merely  swells. 

Artificial  Silk  from  Silk.  On  account  of  the  low  value 
of  the  artificial  and  the  high  value  of  genuine  silk,  there 
is  a  tendency  to  offer  the  artificial  instead  of  the  pure 
article.  Test:  When  artificial  silk  is  boiled  in  4  per 
cent  potassium  hydrate  solution  it  produces  a  yellow 
solution,  while  pure  silk  gives  a  colorless  solution. 


APPENDIX  241 

A  common  test  is  to  put  the  artificial  silk  in  water, 
where  it  will  pull  apart  as  though  rotten;  or  to  take  out 
one  strand  of  the  silk,  hold  it  between  the  finger  and 
thumb  of  each  hand  and  wet  the  middle  of  the  strand 
with  the  tongue,  when  it  will  pull  apart  as  though  rotten. 

Artificial  silk  is  inferior  in  strength  and  elasticity  to 
pure  silk.  Then  again  it  is  lacking  in  the  crackling 
feeling  noticed  in  handling  the  genuine  article. 

Test  for  Shoddy.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  detect  shoddy 
in  woolen  fabrics;  the  color  of  the  shoddy  threads  is  the 
best  evidence.  Many  parcels  of  rags  are  of  one  single 
color,  but  for  the  most  part  they  are  made  of  various 
colored  wools;  therefore,  if  on  examination  of  a  fabric 
with  a  magnifying  glass  a  yarn  of  any  particular  color  is 
found  to  contain  a  number  of  individual  fibers  of  glaring 
colors,  the  presence  of  shoddy  can  be  assumed  with 
certainty. 

Woolen  goods  containing  cotton  are  seldom  made 
from  natural  wool.  Shoddy  yarns,  especially  in  winter 
goods,  are  found  in  the  under-filling  at  the  reverse  side 
of  the  cloth,  as  thick,  tightly  twisted  yarns,  curlier  than 
those  from  the  pure  wool. 

Determination  of  the  Dressing.  During  the  various 
operations  of  washing,  bleaching,  etc.,  the  goods  lose  in 
weight,  and  to  make  up  this  deficit  a  moderate  amount 
of  dressing  or  loading  is  employed.  Dressing  is  not 
regarded  as  an  adulteration,  but  as  an  embellishment. 

Various  dressing  materials  are  used,  such  as  starch, 
flour,  mineral  matters,  to  give  the  goods  stiffness  and 
feel  on  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  to  conceal  defects 


242  APPENDIX 

in  the  cloth,  and  to  give  a  solid  appearance  to  goods  of 
open  texture.  The  mineral  substances  used  serve  chiefly 
for  filling  and  weighting,  and  necessitate  the  employ- 
ment of  a  certain  quantity  of  starch,  etc.  In  order  that 
the  latter  may  not  render  the  cloth  too  stiff  and  hard, 
further  additions  of  some  emollient,  such  as  glycerine, 
oils,  etc.,  are  necessary. 

When  a  fabric  filled  in  this  manner  is  placed  in 
water  and  rubbed  between  the  hands,  the  dressing  is 
removed,  and  the  quantity  employed  can  be  easily 
determined. 

By  holding  fabrics  before  the  light  dressing  will  be 
recognized,  and  such  goods,  if  rubbed  between  the  fingers, 
will  lose  their  stiffness.  Loading  is  revealed  by  the 
production  of  dust  on  rubbing,  and  by  the  aid  of  the 
magnifying  glass  it  can  be  easily  ascertained  whether 
the  covering  or  dressing  is  merely  superficial  or  pene- 
trates into  the  substance  of  the  fabric. 

The  tests  of  permanence  of  dyes  on  fabrics  are  as 
follows : 

Washing  Fastness.  Fabrics  should  stand  mechanical 
friction  as  well  as  the  action  of  soap  liquor  and  the 
temperature  of  the  washing  operation.  In  order  to  test 
the  fabric  for  fastness  a  piece  should  be  placed  in  a 
soap  solution  similar  to  that  used  in  the  ordinary  house- 
hold, and  heated  to  131  degrees  F.  The  treatment 
should  be  repeated  several  times.  If  the  color  fails  to 
run  it  is  fast  to  washing. 

Fastness  Under  Friction.  Stockings,  hosiery  yarns, 
corset  stuffs,  and  all  fabrics  intended  to  be  worn  next 


APPENDIX  243 

to  the  skin  must  be  permanent  under  friction,  and  must 
not  rub  off,  stain,  or  run,  that  is,  the  dyed  materials  must 
not  give  off  their  color  when  worn  next  to  the  human 
epidermis  (skin),  or  in  close  contact  with  colored  articles 
of  clothing,  as  in  the  case  of  underwear. 

The  simplest  test  is  to  rub  the  fabric  or  yarn  on  white 
unstarched  cotton  fabric.  In  comparing  the  fastness 
of  two  fabrics  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  rubbing  equal 
in  all  cases. 

Resistance  to  Perspiration.  With  fabrics  coming  in 
contact  with  the  human  skin  it  is  necessary  in  addition 
to  fastness  under  friction  that  they  should  withstand 
the  excretions  of  the  body.  The  acids  of  perspiration 
(acetic,  formic,  and  butyric)  often  become  so  concen- 
trated that  they  act  on  the  fiber  of  the  fabric. 

In  order  to  test  the  fabric  for  resistance,  place  the 
sample  in  a  bath  of  30  per  cent  dilute  acetic  acid 
(one  teaspoonful  to  a  quart  of  water)  warmed  to  the 
temperature  of  the  body,  98.6  degrees  F.  The  sample 
should  be  dipped  a  number  of  times,  and  then  dried 
without  rinsing  between  parchment  paper. 

Fastness  against  Rain.  Silk  and  woolen  materials 
for  umbrella  making,  raincoats,  etc.,  are  expected  to 
be  rainproof.  These  fabrics  are  tested  by  plaiting 
with  undyed  yarns  and  left  to  stand  all  night  in  cold 
water. 

Resistance  to  Street  Mud  and  Dust.  Ladies'  dress 
goods  are  expected  to  withstand  the  action  of  mud  and 
dust.  In  order  to  test  a  fabric  for  this  resistance  the 
sample  should  be  moistened  with  lime  and  water  (10 


244  APPENDIX 

per  cent  solution),  dried,  and  brushed.  Or  sprinkle 
with  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  soda,  drying,  brushing, 
and  noting  any  changes  in  color. 

Fastness  to  Weather,  Light,  and  Air.  Various  people 
have  attempted  to  set  up  standard  degrees  of  fast- 
ness —  for  every  shade  of  color  is  affected  by  the  action 
of  sun,  light,  and  air  —  and  as  a  result  fabrics  that  re- 
main without  appreciable  alteration  for  a  month  of  ex- 
posure to  direct  summer  sunlight  are  classified  as  "fast," 
and  those  undergoing  slight  appreciable  change  under  the 
same  conditions  as  "fairly  fast."  "Moderately  fast" 
colors  are  those  altering  considerably  in  fourteen  days; 
and  those  more  or  less  completely  faded  in  the  same 
time  (fourteen  days)  are  designated  as  "fleeting." 

Directions  for  testing  fastness  of  Color  in  Sunlight. 
Cover  one  end  of  the  sample  of  cloth  with  a  piece  of 
cardboard.  Expose  the  fabric  to  the  sunlight  for  a 
number  of  days  and  examine  the  cloth  each  day  in  the 
dark  and  notice  whether  the  part  exposed  has  changed 
in  color  when  compared  with  the  part  covered.  Count 
the  number  of  days  it  has  taken  the  sunlight  to  change 
the  color. 

Brown  in  woolen  materials  is  likely  to  fade.  Brown  holds  its 
color  in  all  gingham  materials. 

Dark  blue  is  an  excellent  color  for  woolens  and  ginghams.  Light 
blues  on  the  other  hand  usually  change. 

Black,  gray,  and  black  with  white.  These  colors  are  very  satis- 
factory for  woolen  materials. 

Black  is  riot  a  color  which  wears  very  well  with  cotton  fabrics,  as 
it  shows  the  starch  (sizing)  and  often  fades. 

Red  is  an  excellent  color  for  all  woolen  materials.  It  looks  attrac- 
tive and  wears  well. 


APPENDIX  245 

Red  is  a  very  poor  color  for  cotton.  It  loses  its  brilliancy  and 
frequent  washing  spoils  it. 

A  deep  pink  is  an  excellent  color  for  all  ginghams  for  it  fades 
evenly  and  leaves  a  pretty  shade. 

Green  is  a  poor  color  for  both  cotton  and  woolen  materials  unless 
it  is  high  priced. 

Lavender  fades  more  than  any  other  color  in  textiles. 

HISTORY  OF   TEXTILES 

The  three  fundamental  industries  that  have  developed 
from  necessity  are  the  feeding,  sheltering,  and  clothing 
of  the  human  race.  These  primary  wants  were  first 
gratified  before  such  conveniences  as  transportation 
and  various  lines  of  manufacture  were  even  considered. 
Next  to  furnishing  our  food  supply,  the  industry  of 
supplying  clothing  is  the  oldest  and  the  most  widely 
diffused.  It  is  in  the  manufacture  of  textiles  —  includ- 
ing all  materials  used  in  the  manufacturing  of  clothing 
-  that  human  ingenuity  is  best  illustrated. 

The  magnitude  of  the  textile  industry  in  the  United 
States  is  evident  when  we  consider  that  it  gives  employ- 
ment to  a  round  million  of  people,  paying  them  nearly 
five  hundred  million  dollars  annually  in  wages  and 
salaries,  producing  nearly  one  and  three-quarters  bil- 
lion dollars  in  gross  value  each  year,  and  giving  a 
livelihood  to  at  least  three  millions  of  our  population. 

Wool,  cotton,  flax,  and  silk  have  been  used  since  early 
times.  Even  in  the  earlier  days  these  fibers  were  woven 
with  great  skill.  It  is  not  known  which  fiber  was  the 
first  to  be  used  in  weaving.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  the  possession  of  flocks  and  herds  led  to  the  spinning 


246  APPENDIX 

and  weaving  of  wool  before  cotton,  flax,  or  silk  fibers  were 
thus  used. 

Wool.  The  date  at  which  prehistoric  man  discarded 
the  pelt  of  skins  for  the  woven  fabric  of  wool  marks  the 
origin  of  the  textile  industry.  Primitive  sheep  were 
covered  with  hair  and  the  wool  which  now  characterizes 
them  was  then  a  downy  under-coat.  As  time  went  on 
and  the  art  of  spinning  and  weaving  developed,  the  food 
value  of  sheep  decreased,  while  the  wool  value  increased. 
The  hairy  flocks  were  bred  out,  and  the  sheep  with  true 
wool,  like  the  merino,  survived.  Sheep  were  bred  prin- 
cipally for  the  wool  and  not  for  the  mutton.  Woolen 
fabrics  were  worn  by  the  early  inhabitants  of  Persia 
and  Palestine.  The  Persians  were  noted  for  the  excel- 
lent fabrics  they  wove  from  wool.  Even  the  Hebrews 
of  an  early  date  were  very  skilful  in  weaving  woolens. 

The  early  Romans  were  a  race  of  shepherds  and  the 
women  of  the  higher  classes  wove  the  cloth  in  their  own 
homes.  When  Caesar  invaded  England,  he  found  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  island  people  acquainted  with 
the  spinning  and  weaving  of  wool  and  linen.  With  the 
downfall  of  Rome,  the  art  of  weaving  cloth  in  Europe 
was  almost  lost,  and  people  again  wore  furs  and  skins. 

By  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  English  cloth 
manufacturing  had  begun  to  revive.  In  the  northern 
part  of  Italy  certain  Italians  had  flocks  of  sheep  and 
obtained  very  fine  wool,  and  the  people  of  Flanders 
continued  to  develop  skill  in  weaving  during  the  Dark 
Ages. 

In  the  twelfth  century  the  woolen  manufacturers  of 


APPENDIX  247 

Flanders  had  grown  to  be  of  great  importance,  and 
some  of  the  finest  goods  were  shipped  from  there  to  many 
countries. 

In  England,  up  to  the  time  of  Edward  III,  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  the  wool  produced  was  exported  to 
the  Netherlands,  there  to  be  woven  into  cloth.  Edward 
III  invited  many  of  the  Flemish  weavers  to  come  to 
England  to  teach  the  English  people  how  to  make  their 
own  clothes.  Edward  was  called  the  "  Royal  Wool 
Merchant"  and  also  the  " Father  of  English  Com- 
merce." During  Elizabeth's  reign  in  the  sixteenth 
century  the  chief  article  of  export  was  woolen  cloth. 
In  1685  the  Huguenots,  who  were  driven  from  France, 
went  to  England  to  settle.  These  people  were  noted 
for  their  skill  in  weaving. 

Patient  effort  in  care  and  breeding  of  sheep  showed  a 
steady  increase  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  wool 
until  1810,  and  the  proportion  of  sheep  to  the  popula- 
tion was  then  greater  than  at  the  present  time. 

Our  own  climate  is  highly  favorable  for  sheep  breed- 
ing, and  it  is  certain  that  the  American  sheep  has  no 
superior  in  any  wool  growing  country,  in  constitutional 
vigor  and  strength  of  wool-fiber,  and  no  wools  make  more 
durable  or  more  valuable  clothing. 

The  obstacles  to  sheep  husbandry  in  certain  parts  of 
the  United  States,  like  New  England,  are  mainly  cli- 
matic. The  natural  home  of  the  only  races  of  sheep 
which  can  be  herded  in  large  flocks  is  an  elevated  table- 
land, like  the  steppes  of  Russia  and  the  great  plains  of 
Asia,  Argentina,  Montana,  Wyoming,  and  others  of  our 


248  APPENDIX 

western  states  where  an  open  air  range  is  possible  for 
nearly  twelve  months  in  the  year.  In  these  elevated  lands 
there  are  grasses  which  are  more  nutritious  in  winter 
than  in  summer.  The  climate  of  New  England  does 
not  permit  the  growth  of  such  grasses.  Every  grass 
which  will  grow  in  New  England  becomes  in  the  cold 
months  frozen  wood  fiber.  Then  again  there  is  the 
frigid  and  penetrating  atmosphere  which  necessitates 
housing  the  sheep  in  winter,  and  these  animals  cannot 
be  closely  housed  without  engendering  a  variety  of 
parasitic  diseases. 

Cotton.  Long  before  history  was  written,  cotton  was 
used  in  making  fabrics  in  India  and  China.  Cotton 
has  been  for  thousands  of  years  the  leading  fabric  of 
the  East.  The  Hindoos  have  for  centuries  maintained 
almost  unapproachable  perfection  in  their  cotton  fabrics. 
It  was  the  Arabian  caravans  that  brought  Indian  calicoes 
and  muslins  into  Europe. 

Cotton  was  first  cultivated  in  Europe  by  the  Moors 
in  Spain  in  the  ninth  century.  In  1430  it  was  imported 
into  England  in  large  quantities.  The  section  of  Eng- 
land about  Manchester  became  in  time  the  seat  of  the 
great  cotton  industry;  this  was  due  to  the  settlement 
of  spinners  and  weavers  from  Flanders. 

During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  East  Indies  Trading 
Company  was  established.  Not  only  was  cotton  im- 
ported, but  also  India  muslins.  This  caused  trouble 
because  of  the  decrease  in  the  demand  for  woolen  goods 
manufactured  in  England.  A  law  was  passed  prohibit- 
ing the  importing  of  cotton  goods  and  later  the  manu- 


APPENDIX  249 

facturing  of  them,  but  this  law  was  repealed  on 
account  of  the  great  demand  for  cotton  materials. 

Columbus  found  cotton  garments  worn  by  the  natives 
of  the  West  Indies.  Later  Cortez  found  that  cotton 
was  used  in  Mexico;  hence,  cotton  is  indigenous  to 
America.  In  1519  Cortez  made  the  first  recorded 
export  of  cotton  from  America  to  Europe. 

In  1734  cotton  was  planted  in  Georgia.  Bales  of 
cotton  were  sent  to  England,  and  the  manufacturing 
of  cloth  was  soon  under  way.  While  the  colonies  were 
trying  to  gain  independence,  England  imposed  a  fine 
on  anyone  sending  cotton  machinery  to  America,  and 
restrictions  were  put  on  manufacturing  and  imports 
of  any  kind.  After  the  War  of  Independence  many 
of  the  southern  states  began  to  raise  cotton  in  larger 
quantities. 

The  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  by  Eli  Whitney  was 
one  of  the  great  inventions  of  the  age.  While  only 
two  pounds  of  cotton  could  be  seeded  by  hand  by  one 
person  in  a  day,  the  gin  made  it  possible  to  do  several 
hundred  pounds.  At  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  the 
greater  part  of  the  cotton  used  by  English  manufacturers 
was  imported  from  the  southern  states.  The  closing 
of  the  southern  ports  during  the  war  affected  the  cotton 
industry  throughout  the  world.  Large  mills  in  England 
were  closed,  and  thousands  of  people  were  out  of  employ- 
ment. Steps  were  then  taken  to  encourage  people  of 
India,  Egypt,  Central  and  South  America  to  increase 
their  production  of  cotton,  and  from  that  time  on, 
cotton  from  these  countries  has  been  found  in  the 


250  APPENDIX 

general  market.  Cotton  is  now  cultivated  in  nearly  all 
countries  within  the  limits  45°  north  and  35°  south  of 
the  equator. 

At  the  present  time  the  United  States  ranks  first  in 
the  production  and  export  of  cotton.  Of  all  the  states, 
Texas  and  Georgia  produce  the  largest  amount.  About 
one-third  of  the  entire  crop  is  used  in  our  own  mills; 
$250,000,000  worth  of  cotton  is  annually  exported, 
principally  through  New  Orleans,  New  York,  Savannah, 
and  Galveston.  Three-fifths  of  this  quantity  goes  to 
mills  in  England;  Germany,  France,  and  Switzerland 
take  a  large  part  of  the  remainder. 

The  value  of  cotton  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  about 
one-half  the  people  of  the  earth  wear  clothing  made 
entirely  of  cotton,  and  the  other  half  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  savage  tribes)  use  it  in  part  of  the  dress. 

Linen.  Linen  has  always  been  held  in  great  esteem. 
The  garments  of  the  Egyptian,  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Roman  priests  were  made  of  the  finest  linen. 

During  the  Middle  Ages,  Italy,  Spain,  and  France 
were  celebrated  for  their  linen  fabrics.  Religious  in- 
tolerance in  France  drove  300,000  of  her  best  textile 
workers  into  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland.  Irish 
linen  weaving  began  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century. 

Linen  has  never  been  largely  woven  in  America  except 
in  the  coarser  forms  of  crash  and  toweling,  although 
linen  weaving  was  one  of  the  Puritan  domestic  industries. 
The  reason  America  has  not  been  able  to  equal  Europe 
in  its  production  of  fine  linens  is  because  the  process  for 
separating  the  fiber  from  the  stalk  requires  the  cheapest 


APPENDIX  251 

form  of  labor  to  make  it  profitable,  hence  most  of  the 
American-grown  flax  is  raised  only  for  seed. 

Silk.  Silk  was  used  in  the  East  as  a  fabric  for  the 
nobility.  It  was  first  used  in  China  and  later  in 
India.  It  was  brought  into  Europe  about  the  sixth 
century.  Up  to  that  time  the  Chinese  had  a  monopoly 
of  the  industry.  By  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries 
silk  fabrics  were  made  in  Spain  and  Italy.  At  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth  century  silk  was  being  produced  at 
Lyons,  France.  It  was  afterwards  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, and  the  English  silk  for  a  long  time  replaced  the 
French  in  the  European  market. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  TEXTILE 
INDUSTRIES 

The  development  of  the  textile  industry  may  be 
divided  into  four  stages  or  periods:  first,  the  family 
system;  second,  the  guild  system;  third,  the  domestic 
system;  and  fourth,  the  factory  system. 

The  Family  System.  Under  the  family  system  the 
work  of  spinning  and  weaving  was  carried  on  by  members 
of  a  household  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  family 
with  clothing.  There  were  no  sales  of  the  product. 
Each  class  in  society,  from  the  peasant  class  to  that  of 
the  nobleman,  had  its  own  devices  for  making  clothing. 
This  was  the  system  that  existed  up  to  about  the  tenth 
century. 

The  Guild  System.  As  communities  became  larger 
and  cities  sprang  up,  the  textile  industry  became  more 
than  a  -family  concern.  There  was  a  demand  for  better 


252  APPENDIX 

fabrics,  and  to  meet  this  demand  it  became  necessary  to 
have  a  large  supply  of  different  parts  of  looms.  The 
small  weaver  who  owned  and  constructed  his  own  loom 
was  not  able  to  have  all  these  parts,  so  he  began  to  work 
for  a  more  prosperous  weaver.  The  same  conditions  ap- 
plied to  spinning,  and  as  early  as  1740  spinning  was  car- 
ried on  by  a  class  distinct  from  the  weavers.  As  a  result 
the  small  weaver  was  driven  out  by  the  growth  of 
organized  capital,  and  a  more  perfect  organization, 
called  the  guild  system,  arose.  By  this  system  the 
textile  industry  was  carried  on  by  a  small  group 
of  men  called  masters,  employing  two,  three  or  more 
men  (distinguished  later  as  journeymen  and  appren- 
tices). The  masters  organized  associations  called  guilds 
and  dominated  all  the  conditions  of  the  manufacture 
to  a  fa"  greater  extent  than  is  possible  under  present 
conditions. 

It  was  the  family  system  that  existed  in  the  American 
colonies  at  the  beginning  of  the  settlement,  and  for  many 
years  after.  The  guild  system  was  not  adopted  in 
America  because  it  was  going  out  of  existence  on  the 
Continent. 

The  Domestic  Period.  By  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  the  textile  industry  began  to  break  away 
from  the  guilds  and  spread  from  cities  to  the  rural  dis- 
tricts. The  work  was  still  carried  on  in  the  master's 
house,  although  he  had  lost  the  economic  independence 
that  he  had  under  the  old  guild  system  where  he  acted 
both  as  merchant  and  manufacturer.  He  now  received 
his  raw  material  from  the  merchant  and  disposed  of 


APPENDIX  253 

the  finished  goods  to  a  middleman,  who  looked  after  the 
demands  of  the  market. 

The  Factory  System.  The  domestic  period  was  in 
turn  crowded  out  of  existence  by  the  factory  system. 
A  factory  is  a  place  where  goods  are  produced  by  power 
for  commercial  use.  The  factory  system  first  came  into 
prominence  after  the  invention  of  the  steam  engine. 
No  record  has  been  found  showing  its  existence  prior 
to  this  invention. 

English  weavers  and  spinners  became  very  skilful 
and  invented  different  mechanical  aids  for  the  produc- 
tion of  yarn  and  cloth.  These  mechanical  aids  not  only 
enabled  one  man  to  do  twenty  men's  work,  but  further 
utilization  was  made  of  water  and  steam  power  in  place 
of  manual  labor.  Then  began  the  organization  of  the 
industry  on  a  truly  gigantic  scale,  combining  capital 
and  machinery  and  resulting  in  what  is  known  as  the 
factory  system. 

Previous  to  the  development  of  the  factory  system 
there  was  no  reason  why  any  industry  should  be  centered 
in  one  particular  district.  Upon  the  utilization  of  steam 
power  the  textile  industry  became  subdivided  into  a 
number  of  industries,  each  one  becoming  to  a  great 
extent  localized  in  convenient  and  suitable  portions  of 
the  country.  Thus  in  Bradford  the  wool  of  Yorkshire 
(England)  meets  the  coal  of  Yorkshire  and  makes 
Bradford  the  great  woolen  and  worsted  center  of  the 
world.  The  same  thing  took  place  in  Manchester, 
where  the  cotton  of  America  meets  the  coal  of  Eng- 
land under  satisfactory  climatic  conditions,  and  around 


254  APPENDIX 

Manchester  is  the  greatest  cotton  manufacturing  of  the 
world. 

The  same  is  true  in  America.  Lawrence  became  a 
large  worsted  center  on  account  of  the  great  fall  of 
water  and  the  use  of  the  river  to  deposit  wool  washings. 
Lowell,  Fall  River,  and  New  Bedford  became  large  cotton 
centers  for  similar  reasons. 

HISTORY  OF  MANUFACTURING 

Spinning.  Spinning  and  weaving  are  two  of  the 
earliest  arts  practised  by  man.  Yarn  for  the  making 

of  cloth  was  spun  in  the  earliest 
times  by  the  use  of  the  distaff 
and  spindle.  The  spindle  was 
a  round  stick  of  wood  a  foot 
or  less  in  length,  tapering  at 

SPINNING  WHORL  Gach   6nd'        A   ring    °f    stone    °r 

one  of  the  earliest  devices  used       clay  was  placed  on  the  spindle 

for  spinning  . 

to  give  it  steadiness  and  mo- 
mentum when  it  revolved.  At  the  top  of  the  spindle 
was  a  slit  or  notch  in  which  the  yarn  was  caught. 
The  distaff  was  a  larger,  stouter  stick,  around  one  end 
of  which  the  material  to  be  spun  was  wound  in  a  loose 
ball.  The  spinner  fixed  the  end  of  the  distaff  under  her 
left  arm  so  that  the  coil  of  material  was  in  a  conve- 
nient position  for  drawing  out  to  form  the  yarn.  The 
end  of  the  yarn,  after  being  prepared,  was  inserted 
in  the  notch,  and  the  spindle  was  set  in  motion  by 
rolling  it  with  the  right  hand  against  the  leg.  Then 
the  spinner  drew  from  the  distaff  an  additional  amount 


APPENDIX 


255 


of  fiber,  which  was  formed  by  the  right  hand  into  uni- 
form strands.  After  the  yarn  was  twisted,  it  was  re- 
leased from  the  notch  and  wound  around  the  lower 
part  of  the  spindle. 

In  order  to  spin  yarn  by  the  primitive  spinner,  it  was 
necessary  for  the  fiber  to  have  sufficient  length  to  enable 
it  to  be  manipulated,  drawn  over,  and  twisted  by  the 
fingers.  It  is  noted  that  the  yarns  for  the  gossamer-like 
Dacca  muslins  of  India  were  so  fine  that  one  pound  of 
cotton  was  spun  into  a  thread  253  miles  long.  This  was 
accomplished  with  the  aid  of  a  bamboo  spindle  not  much 
bigger  than  a  darning  needle,  which  was  lightly  weighted 
with  a  pellet  of  clay.  Since  such  a  slender  thread  could 
not  support  even  the  weight  of  so  slight  a  spindle,  the 
apparatus  was  rotated 
upon  a  piece  of  hollow 
shell.  It  thus  appears 
that  the  primitive  spin- 
ners with  distaff  and 
spindle  had  nothing  to 
learn  in  point  of  fine- 
ness from  even  the  most 
advanced  methods  of 
spinning  by  machinery. 

Certain  rude  forms  of  the  spinning  wheel  seem  to 
have  been  known  from  time  immemorial.  The  use  of 
the  wheel  in  Europe  cannot,  however,  be  dated  back 
earlier  than  the  fifteenth  century.  In  the  primitive 
wheel  the  spindle,  having  a  groove  worked  in  its  whorl, 
was  mounted  horizontally  in  a  framework  fixed  to  the 


HAND   SPINNING 

From  a  Fourteenth  Century  MS.  in  the 
British  Museum 


256 


APPENDIX 


end  of  a  bench.  A  band  passed  around  the  whorl  and 
was  carried  around  a  large  wheel  fixed  farther  back  on 
the  bench,  and  this  wheel,  being  turned  by  the  hand 
of  the  spinner,  gave  a  rapid  rotation  to  the  spindle. 

The  fibers  to  be  spun  were  first  combed  out  by  means 
of  carding  boards  —  an  implement  of  unknown  an- 
tiquity, consisting  of  two  boards  with  wire  teeth  set  in 
them  at  a  uniform  angle.  The  fiber  to  be  carded  was 
thinly  spread  upon  one  of  the  boards,  and  then  the 
other  was  pushed  backward  and  forward  across  it,  the 
teeth  of  the  two  overlapping  at  opposite  angles,  until 

the  fibers  were  combed 
out  and  laid  straight  in 
parallel  lines.  The  fi- 
bers were  then  scraped 
off  the  boards  in  rollers 
or  "cardings"  about 
twelve  inches  long  and 
three-quarters  of  an  inch 
AN  ANCIENT  LOOM  jn  diameter.  An  end  of 

From  an  Egyptian  Monument  ..  ,. 

the    carding    was    then 

attached  to  the  spindle  and  the  wheel  set  in  motion. 
The  carding  itself  was  held  in  the  hand  of  the  spinner 
and  gradually  drawn  out  and  twisted  by  the  rotation 
of  the  spindle.  As  soon  as  a  sufficient  length  had 
been  attenuated  and  twisted  to  the  required  fineness, 
the  thread  so  produced  was  held  at  right  angles  to  the 
spindle  and  allowed  to  wind  up  on  it.  But  for  fine 
spinning  two  operations  of  the  wheel  were  generally 
necessary.  By  the  first  spinning  the  fibers  were  drawn 


APPENDIX 


257 


out  and  slightly  attenuated  into  what  was  called  a  roving, 
and  by  the  second  spinning  the  roving  itself  passed 
through  a  similar  cycle  of  operations  to  bring  it  to  the 
required  degree  of  attenuation  and  twist. 

Many  improvements  in  the  primitive  wheel  were 
introduced  from  time  to  time.  In  its  later  develop- 
ments two  spindles  were  employed,  the  spinner  being 
thus  enabled  to  manipulate  two  threads  at  once,  one  in 
each  hand.  This 
was  the  latest  form 
of  the  spinning- 
wheel,  and  it  sur- 
vived until  it  was 
superseded  in  the 
eighteenth  century 
by  the  great  series 
of  inventions  which 
inaugurated  the  in- 
dustrial revolution 
and  led  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  to 
the  introduction  of  EARLIER  SPINNING  AND  WEAVING 

^}\Q    f  actorV   SVStem  From  a  Fifteenth  Century  MS.  in  the  British  Museum 

Weaving.  When  or  where  man  first  began  to  weave 
cloth  is  not  known,  nor  is  it  known  whether  this  art 
sprang  from  one  common  center  or  was  invented  by 
many  who  dwelt  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  There 
is  such  a  sameness  in  the  early  devices  for  spinning  and 
weaving  that  among  some  men  of  science  it  is  thought 
that  the  art  must  have  come  from  a  common  center. 


258  APPENDIX 

Fabrics  were  made  on  the  farms  two  or  three  hundred 
years  ago  in  the  following  manner:  the  men  of  the 
household  raised  the  flocks,  while  the  women  spun  the 
yarn  and  wove  the  fabrics.  In  this  way  the  industry 
prospered,  giving  occupation  and  income  to  thousands 
of  the  agricultural  class.  You  might  say  that  in  Eng- 
land fabrics  were  a  by-product  of  agriculture.  As  time 
went  on,  farmers  of  certain  sections  of  England  became 
more  expert  in  the  art,  and  the  weaving  became  sepa- 
rated from  the  spinning.  The  weavers  became  clus- 
tered in  certain  towns  on  account  of  the  higher  skill 
required  for  the  finer  fabrics.  The  rough  work  of  farm- 
ing made  the  hands  of  the  weaver  less  skilful.  This, 
coupled  with  the  fact  that  the  looms  became  more 
complicated  with  improvements,  called  for  a  more  ex- 
perienced man.  Great  inventions  brought  about  a  more 
rapid  development  of  the  factory. 

Richard  Arkwright,  who  has  been  called  the  "  father 
of  the  factory  system,"  built  the  first  cotton  mill  in  the 
world  in  Nottingham  in  1769.  The  wheels  were  turned 
by  horses.  In  1771  Arkwright  erected  at  Crawford  a 
new  mill  which  was  turned  by  water  power  and  supplied 
with  machinery  to  accomplish  the  whole  operation  of 
cotton  spinning  in  one  mill,  the  first  machine  receiving 
the  cotton  as  it  came  from  the  bale  and  the  last  wind- 
ing the  cotton  yarn  upon  the  bobbins.  Children  were 
employed  in  this  mill,  as  they  were  found  to  be  more 
dexterous  in  tying  the  broken  ends.  As  the  result  of 
this  great  invention,  factories  sprang  up  everywhere  in 
England,  changing  the  country  scene  into  a  collection 


APPENDIX  259 

of  factories,  with  tall  chimneys,  brick  buildings,   and 
streets. 

From  1730  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  development  of  inventions  was  rapid: 

1730  —  First  cotton  yarn  spun  in  England  by  machinery  by 

Wyatt. 
1733  —  English  patent  granted  John  Kay  for  the  invention  of 

the  fly  shuttle. 
1738  —  Patent  granted  Lewis  Paul  for  the  spinning  machinery 

supposed  to  have  been  invented  by  Wyatt. 
1742  —  First  mill  for  spinning  cotton  built  at  Birmingham; 

moved  by  asses;  but  not  successful. 
1748  —  Patent  on  a  cylinder  card  as  first  used  by  hand,  granted 

Lewis  Paul. 

1750  —  Fly  shuttle  in  general  use  in  England. 
1756  —  Cotton  velvets  and  quiltings  first  made  in  England. 
1760  —  Stock  cards  first  used  for  cotton  by  J.  Hargreave.    Drop 

box  invented  by  Kay. 

1762-67  —  Spinning-jenny  invented  by  Hargreave. 
1769  —  Arkwright  obtains  his  first  patent  on  spinning. 

1774  —  Bill  passed  in  England  to  prevent  the  export  of  cotton 

machinery. 

1775  —  Second  patent  of  Arkwright  on  carding,  drawing,  and 

spinning. 

1779  —  Mule  spinning  invented  by  Crompton.  Peele's  patent 
on  carding,  roving,  and  spinning. 

1782  —  Date  of  Watt's  patent  for  the  steam-engine. 

1783  —  Bounty  granted  in  England  for  the  export  of  certain 

cotton  goods. 

1785  —  Power  loom  invented  by  Cartwright.  Cylinder  print- 
ing invented  by  Bell.  A  warp  stop-motion  described 
in  Cartwright's  patent. 

1788  —  First  cotton  factory  built  in  the  United  States,  at 
Beverly. 


260  APPENDIX 

1789  —  Sea  Island  cotton  first  planted  in  the  United  States. 

Samuel  Slater  starts  cotton  machinery  in  New  York. 

1790  —  First  cotton  factory  built  in  Rhode  Island  by  Slater. 
1792  —  First  American  loom  patent  granted  to  Kirk  and  Leslie. 
1794  —  Cotton-gin  patented  by  Eli  Whitney. 

1801  —  Date  given  for  invention  of  the  Jacquard  machine  in 
France. 

1803  —  Dressing  machine  and  warper  invented  in  England  by 

Radcliffe,  Ross,  and  Johnson. 

1804  —  First  cotton  mill  built  in  New  Hampshire,   at  New 

Ipswich. 

1805  —  Power  loom  successfully  introduced  in  England  after 

many  failures. 

1806  —  First  cotton  mill  built  in  Connecticut,  at  Pomfret. 
1809  —  First  cotton  mill  built  in  Maine,  at  Brunswick. 
1812  —  First  cotton  mill  built  at  Fall  River. 

1814  —  Cotton  opener  with  lap  attachment  invented  in  England 

by  Creighton. 

1815  —  Power   loom   introduced   into   the    United    States   at 

Waltham. 

1816  —  First  loom  temple  of  Ira  Draper  patented  in  the  United 

States. 

1818  —  Machinery  for  preparing    sewing  cotton  invented  in 
England  by  Holt. 

1822  —  First  cotton  factory  erected  at  Lowell. 

1823  —  Differential    motion   for   roving   frames   patented    by 

Arnold.     First  export  of  raw  cotton  from  Egypt  to 
England. 

1824  —  Tube  frame  or  speeder  patented  by  Danforth. 

1825  —  Self-acting  mule  patented  in  England  by  Roberts. 

1828  —  Ring  spinning  patented  by  John  Thorpe.     Cap  spin- 

ning patented  by  Danforth. 

1829  —  Revolving  loom  temple  improvements  patented  by  Ira 

Draper. 
1832  —  Stop-motion  for  drawing  frames  invented  by  Bachelder. 


APPENDIX  261 

1833  —  Ring  spinning  frames  first  built  by  William  Mason. 

1834  —  Weft  fork  patented  in  England  by  Ramsbottom  and 

Hope.     Shuttle-changing  loom  by  Reid  and  Johnson. 

1840  —  Automatic  loom  led  off.     Important  temple  improve- 
ment. 

1849  —  First  cotton  mill  erected  in  Lawrence. 

Through  this  great  change  from  hand  to  power  work, 
thousands  were  thrown  out  of  employment  in  the  great 
textile  centers,  and  much  suffering  occurred,  which  led 
to  the  smashing  of  machinery. 

Knitting  Machinery.  Like  many  other  industries, 
the  hosiery  trade  owes  its  first  and  most  important 
impetus  to  the  genius  of  one  who  was  not  connected 
with  the  business  in  a  practical  way.  This  event  took 
place  when  the  Rev.  William  Lee  invented  the  hand 
frame.  He  was  married  early  in  life,  and  his  wife  was 
obliged,  on  account  of  the  slender  family  finances,  to 
knit  continuously  at  home.  Struck  with  the  monotony 
and  toil  involved  in  knitting  with  the  hand  pins,  Mr.  Lee 
evolved  a  means  of  knitting  by  machinery  and  brought 
out  the  hand  stocking-frame,  which  to-day  preserves 
its  chief  features  very  much  as  Lee  invented  them. 
When  knitting  by  hand,  one  must  form  each  loop  sepa- 
rately, and  loop  follows  loop  laboriously  until  the  width 
of  fabric  has  been  worked.  Lee  contrived  to  make  the 
whole  row  of  loops  across  the  width  simultaneously  by 
arranging  a  needle  for  each  loop  and  placing  in  connec- 
tion with  each  needle  a  sinker  and  other  apparatus  for 
completing  the  formation  of  the  loop.  First  of  all, 
the  yarn  is  laid  over  the  needles,  which  are  arranged 


262  APPENDIX 

horizontally,  and  the  sinkers  come  down  on  the  yarn 
and  cause  it  to  form  partial  loops  between  the  needles. 
The  old  loops  of  the  previous  course  are  now  brought 
forward  and  the  new  yarn  is  drawn  through  them  in  the 
same  way  as  is  done  on  the  hand  pins.  Thus  the  new 
yarn  of  one  course  is  drawn  through  the  loops  of  the 
preceding  one,  and  so  the  whole  fabric  is  built  up.  This 
frame  of  Lee's  held  its  own  in  the  great  centers  until 
some  thirty  years  ago. 

Lee's  hand  frame  gave  way  to  what  is  termed  the 
jack  and  sinker  rotary  frame,  which  was  like  the  hand 
frame  in  its  chief  features,  but  with  the  advantage 
that  all  the  motions  were  brought  about  by  power. 
The  various  operations  were  put  under  the  control  of  a 
set  of  cams  *  and  made  to  perform  their  movements  in 
exactly  the  same  way  as  in  the  case  of  the  hand  frame. 
In  the  first  power  machine  for  knitting,  the  machine 
builder  used  the  cam  mechanism,  and  in  examining  the 
latest  machines  we  find  that  he  has  persisted  in  this 
course  throughout.  The  cam  movement  is  character- 
ized by  great  smoothness  of  working  and  absence  of 
vibration,  which  is  very  necessary  in  a  machine  of  the 
delicate  adjustment  of  the  knitting  frame.  It  is  usual 
to  connect  some  of  the  parts  with  two  of  these  cams, 
one  of  which  controls  the  up-and-down  motion  and  the 
other  the  out-and-in  movement.  When  these  two  cams 
work  in  conjunction,  we  obtain  all  the  possible  degrees 
of  harmonic  motion. 

1  A  cam  is  a  device  consisting  of  a  special  shaped  wheel  attached  to  a 
machine  to  give  a  special  kind  of  motion  or  movement. 


APPENDIX  263 

From  the  jack  and  sinker  frame  the  next  really  im- 
portant step  was  taken  when  William  Cotton  brought 
out  his  famous  Cotton's  patent  frame.  In  his  machine 
the  frame  was  in  a  sense  turned  on  its  back,  for  the 
parts,  such  as  the  needles,  which  had  been  horizontal, 
were  made  vertical  and  vice  versa.  He  also  reduced  the 
number  of  the  moving  parts  and  perfected  the  cam 
arrangement.  Another  very  important  development  of 
the  machine  was  when  it  was  built  in  a  number  of  divi- 
sions so  as  to  work  a  number  of  articles  side  by  side  at 
one  time.  At  present  there  are  knitting  frames  which 
can  make  twelve  full-sized  garments  at  one  and  the 
same  time. 

Another  important  improvement  was  effected  when 
the  fashioning  apparatus  was  supplied  to  the  machine, 
by  means  of  which  the  garments  could  be  shaped  accord- 
ing to  the  human  form  by  increasing  or  decreasing  the 
width  as  desired. 

HISTORY  OF  LACE 

Lace,  like  porcelain,  stained  glass,  and  other  artistic 
things,  has  always  been  an  object  of  interest  to  all 
classes.  Special  patterns  of  laces  date  from  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  church  and  court  have  always 
encouraged  its  production.  While  the  early  lace  work 
was  similar  to  weaving,  in  that  the  patterns  were  stiff 
and  geometrical,  sometimes  the  patterns  were  cut  out 
of  linen,  but  with  the  development  of  the  renaissance 
of  art,  free  flowing  patterns  and  figures  were  introduced 
and  worked  in. 


264  APPENDIX 

The  lace  industry  first  took  root  in  Flanders  and 
Venice,  where  it  became  an  important  branch  of  indus- 
try. Active  intercourse  was  maintained  between  the 
two  countries,  so  that  intense  rivalry  existed.  France 
and  England  were  not  behind  Venice  and  Flanders  in 
making  lace.  The  king  of  France,  Henry  III,  en- 
couraged lace  work  by  appointing  a  Venetian  to  be 
pattern  maker  for  varieties  of  linen  needlework  and 
lace  for  his  court.  Later,  official  aid  and  patronage  were 
given  to  this  art  by  Louis  V.  Through  the  influence 
of  these  two  men  the  demand  for  lace  was  increased  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  became  very  popular. 

Under  the  impulse  of  fashion  and  luxury,  lace  has 
received  the  stamp  of  the  special  style  of  each  country. 
Italy  furnishes  its  Point  of  Venice;  Belgium  its  Brussels 
and  Mechlin;  France  its  Valenciennes,  etc. 

Very  little  is  known  of  the  early  lace  manufacturers 
of  Holland.  The  laces  of  Holland  were  overshadowed 
by  the  richer  products  of  their  Flemish  neighbors.  The 
Dutch,  however,  had  one  advantage  over  other  nations 
in  their  Haarlem  thread,  once  considered  the  best  thread 
in  the  world  for  lace. 

In  Switzerland,  the  center  of  the  lace  trade,  the  work 
was  carried  on  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection  as  to  rival 
the  laces  of  Flanders,  not  alone  in  beauty,  but  also  in 
quality. 

Attempts  have  been  made  at  various  times,  both 
during  this  century  and  the  last,  to  assist  the  peasantry 
of  Ireland  by  instruction  in  lace-making.  The  finest 
patterns  of  old  lace  were  procured,  and  the  Irish  girls 


APPENDIX  265 

showed  great  skill  in  copying  them.  Later  a  better 
style  of  work,  needlepoint,  was  modeled  after  old 
Venetian  lace  —  the  exquisite  productions  for  which 
Americans  pay  fabulous  prices  at  the  present  day. 

The  lace  manufacturers  of  Europe  experienced  a 
serious  set-back  in  1818  when  bobinet  was  first  made  in 
France.  Fashion,  always  fleeting,  adopted  the  new 
material.  Manufacturers  were  forced  to  lower  prices, 
but  happily  a  new  channel  for  export  was  opened  in  the 
United  States. 

The  machine-made  productions  of  the  Nottingham 
looms,  as  triumphs  of  mechanical  ingenuity,  deserve 
great  praise. 

The  first  idea  of  the  lace-making  machine  is  attributed 
to  a  common  factory  hand,  Hammond  Lindy,  who,  when 
examining  the  lace  on  his  wife's  cap,  conceived  a  plan 
by  which  he  could  copy  it  on  his  loom.  Improvements 
followed,  and  in  1810  a  fairly  good  net  was  produced. 

Perhaps  the  most  delicate  textile  machine  known,  in 
its  sensitiveness  to  heat  and  cold,  is  a  lace  machine.  A 
machine  can  be  made  to  run  in  any  climate,  provided  it 
is  so  installed  as  to  be  protected  from  either  extreme  of 
temperature. 

The  various  substitutes  for  hand-made  lace  are  legion; 
for  what  the  inventor  cannot  achieve  in  one  way  he  can 
in  another.  There  remains  however  the  fact  that  the 
productions  of  machinery  can  never  possess  the  charm 
of  the  real  hand-made  work.  Machine-made  lace  is 
stiffer  than  hand-made  lace. 


EXPERIMENTS' 

Experiment  1  —  Construction  of  Cloth 

Apparatus:  Pick  glass,  dissecting  pin,  foot-rule. 

Materials:  4  square  inches  of  burlap. 

References:   Textiles.     See  page  54,  Weaving;  page  1,  Fibers. 

Directions 

1.  Look  at  the  cloth    under  the  pick  glass    and    describe  the 
appearance  and  structure  of  its  interlacing  threads,  called  weave. 

2.  With  a  pin  separate  the  interlacing  threads  of  the  cloth  which 
are  called  warp  and  filling.     Warp  is  composed  of  yarn  running 
in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  cloth.      Filling  is  composed  of 
yarn  running  at  right  angles  to  the  warp. 

a.  What  are  the  interlacing  threads  of  cloth  called? 
6.  Of  what  is  warp  composed  and  in  what  direction  do  the  warp 
threads  extend?  filling? 

3.  Notice  the  appearance  of  the  individual  threads  (called  yarn) 
of  the  warp  and  filling.     Test  the  strength  of  the  yarn  by  trying 
to  break  it. 

4.  Untwist  one  of  the  warp  threads  and  one  of  the  filling  threads. 
Notice   whether  the   yarn    becomes    stronger  or  weaker   as  it  is 
untwisted.     What  effect  has  twist  on  the  yarn? 

5.  After  untwisting  one  of  the  threads  what  remains?     Measure 
the  length  of  several  of  these  ends  called  fibers.     Describe  the 
appearance  of  the  fiber  as  to  curl,  feel,  fineness,  etc. 

Questions 

1.  Of  what  does  yarn  consist? 

2.  What  causes  the  fibers  to  cling  together? 

3.  What   is  the   process   called   by  which  two  sets  of  threads 
interlace? 

1  Dissecting  pin  may  be  made  by  placing  head  of  pin  or  needle  in  a 
pen  holder. 

267 


268  EXPERIMENTS 

4.  When  two  sets  of  threads  interlace  or  are  woven  what  is 
produced? 

Experiment  2  —  Plain  or  Homespun  Weave 

Apparatus:  Hand  loom,1  two  pencils,  scissors. 
Material:  Yarn  of  two  colors. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  58. 

Directions 

1.  Make  a  warp  on  the  hand  loom  with  green  yarn  by  having 
parallel   threads   running    the   longest    way   of   the   loom   to   the 
notches. 

2.  A  harness  is  a  framework  on  a  loom  used  for  raising  certain 
warp  threads.     Use  a  pencil  as  a  harness  and  raise  the  1st,  3d, 
and    5th    warp    threads.     A    shed   will    in    this    way   be    formed 
through  which  the  shuttle  carrying  the  filling  thread  will  pass. 
Use  the  red  yarn  for  filling  and  attach  it  at  one  end  before  passing 
it  through  the  shed. 

3.  With  a  second  pencil  to  act  as  a  second  harness  raise  the 
2d,  4th,  and  6th  warp  threads.     Pass  the  filling  through  the  shed 
thus  formed. 

4.  Repeat  twice  Directions  2  and  3. 

5.  Tie  all  ends,  cut  the  woven  sample  away  from  the  loom,  and 
mount  in  note-book. 

Questions 

1.  What  part  of  a  loom  is  the  harness? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  shed? 

3.  What  carries  the  filling  thread  through -the  shed  on  a  loom? 

4.  What  is  the  principle  of  plain  weaving? 

5.  Name  some  fabrics  produced  by  plain  weaving?     See  Textiles, 
page  58. 

Experiment  3  —  Twill  Weave 

Apparatus:  Hand  loom,  four  pencils,  scissors. 
Materials:  White  cotton  warp,  colored  yarn  filling. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  58. 

1  A  hand  loom  consisting  of  simply  a  square  frame,  may  be  obtained 
from  Hammett  &  Co.,  Devonshire  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 


EXPERIMENTS  269 

Directions 

1.  On  the  hand  loom  make  a  warp  by  threading  four  white  warp 
threads  to  a  notch  until  there  are  six  sets  of  warp  threads. 

2.  Using  a  pencil  as  a  harness  (See  Exp.  2)  raise  the  first  thread 
of  each  set  of  warp  threads  and  pass  the  filling  thread  through  the 
shed  thus  formed. 

3.  With  another  pencil  as  a  second  harness  raise  the  second  thread 
of  each  set  of  warp  threads  and  pass  the  filling. 

4.  With  a  third  pencil  raise  the  third  thread  of  each  set  of  warp 
threads  and  pass  the  filling. 

5.  With  still  another  pencil  to  act  as  a  fourth  harness  raise  the 
fourth  thread  of  each  set  and  again  pass  the  filling. 

6.  Repeat  the  above  directions  (2  to  5)  several  times.     Notice 
that  the  moving  of  the  filling  thread,  one  warp  thread  to  the  left, 
each  time  it  is  woven  is  causing  a  diagonal  line  or  rib  to  form, 
called  twill. 

7.  Cut  the  woven  sample  away  from  the  loom  and  mount. 

Questions 

1.  Why  is  this  weave  called  a  twill  weave? 

2.  How  is  the  diagonal  line  or  twill  formed? 

3.  Why  would  this  kind  of  weaving  be  spoken  of  as  4-harness 
weave? 

4.  What  popular  dress  fabric  is  of  twill  weave? 

Experiment  4  —  Comparison  of  Plain  and  Twill  Weave 

Apparatus:  Pick  glass,  dissecting  pin,  foot-rule. 
Material:  4  sq.  in.  of  burlap,  4  sq.  in.  of  serge. 
References:   Textiles,  pages  58,  59,  60. 

Directions 

1.  Examine  the  burlap  under  the  pick  glass,  noting  the  structure 
and  number  of  threads  to  the  inch  in  the  warp  (called  ends)  and  the 
number  of  threads  to  the  inch  in  the  filling  (called  picks).     Verify 
with  foot-rule. 

2.  Repeat  the  above,  using  serge. 


270  EXPERIMENTS 

Questions 

1.  What  is  meant  by  a  number  of  "ends  to  the  inch"?  a  num- 
ber of  " picks  to  the  inch"? 

2.  How  many  ends  to  the  inch  in  the  burlap?     How  many  picks 
to  the  inch? 

3.  How  many  ends  to  the  inch  in  the  serge?     How  many  picks? 

4.  Note  several   differences   between   cloth   produced   by   plain 
weaving  and  cloth  produced  by  twill  weaving. 


Experiment  5  —  Pile  Weave 

Apparatus:  Hand  loom,  two  pencils,  scissors. 
Materials:  White  cotton  warp,  filling  yarn  of  two  colors. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  62. 

Directions 

1.  Thread  the  loom  two  warp  threads  to  a  notch  until  there  are 
20  ends  (warp  threads). 

2.  Use  a  pencil  as  a  harness.     Raise  the  1st,  3d,  5th,  7th,  and 
9th  sets  of  warp  threads. 

3.  Fasten  securely  the  green  filling  yarn  at  one  end  and  pass 
it  through  the  shed  formed  by  carrying  out  Direction  2.     Draw 
the  filling  thread  tight  and  wind  once  or  twice  around  the  outside 
warp  end. 

4.  Use  a  second  pencil  as  a  harness  and  raise  the  sets  of  warp 
threads  that  are  now  down,  forming  a  new  shed. 

5.  Fasten  the  red  filling  yarn  at  one  end  and  pass  it  through  the 
shed.     Wind  once  or  twice  about  the  outside  warp  end. 

6.  Raise  the  red  filling  to  form  a  loop  in  each  place  where  it  (the 
red  filling)  has  passed  over  a  warp  end. 

7.  Form  a  shed  by  raising  the  first  harness  and  pass  through 
the  green  filling  thread,  drawing  it  tight  to  hold  the  red  filling  above 
it  in  place.     Wind  about  the  outside  warp  end. 

8.  Repeat   Directions  2~7  several  times,  each  time   raising   the 
red  filling  to  form  loops  and  each  time  drawing  the  green  filling 
tight  to  hold  the  red  in  place. 

9.  Cut  with  scissors  the  loops  formed  by  raising  the  red  filling. 


EXPERIMENTS  271 

10.  As  well  as  you  can  with  scissors,  shear  the  pile  (the  soft, 
thick  covering  on  the  face)  to  make  a  fairly  even  surface. 

11.  Cut  the  sample  away  from  the  loom  and  mount. 

Questions 

1.  What  are  some  varieties  of  cloth  that  are  woven  with  a  pile 
surface? 

2.  Sometimes  the  loops  of  the  pile  are  cut  and  sometimes  left 
as  loops.     What  fabrics  are  examples  of  cut  pile?     uncut  pile? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  pile  of  velvet  or  carpet? 


Experiment  6  —  Other  Classes  of  Weave 

Apparatus:  Pick  glass,  dissecting  needle. 
Materials:  Samples  of  satin,  voile,  lace  curtaining, 

double  cloth,  carpeting. 
Reference:    Textiles,  pages  58-64. 

Satin  Weave 

1.  Examine  the  sample  of  satin  under  the  pick  glass.     Notice 
that  the  warp  and  filling  interlace  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  no 
trace  of  the  diagonal  on  the  face  of  the  cloth. 

a.  Is  satin  of  a  close  or  loose  weave? 

b.  What  can  you  say  of  the  surface  of  satin? 

c.  What  effect  has  this  smooth  surface  on  light? 

d.  This  is  called  a  satin  weave.     Why? 

e.  What  is  the  most  extensive  use  of  the  satin  weave?     (See 

Textiles,  page  1.) 

NOTE.  —  Sometimes  fabrics  of  other  weaves  will  have  a  satin 
stripe. 

Gauze  Weave 

2.  Examine  the  sample  of  voile  under  the  pick  glass.     This  is 
a  type  of  what  is  known  as  gauze  weave. 

a.  What  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  gauze  weave? 

b.  Name  several  gauze  fabrics. 


272  EXPERIMENTS 

Lappet  Weave 

3.  Examine  a  piece  of  lace  curtaining  under  the  pick  glass. 

a.  If  the  fancy  figures  were  not  present,  of  what  weave  would 

this  sample  be? 

Simple  figures  are  stitched  into  plainly  woven  or  gauze  fabrics 
by  machinery  to  imitate  embroidery.  This  style  of  weave 
is  known  as  lappet  weave. 

b.  On  fabrics  of  what  two  weaves  is  lappet  weaving  used? 

c.  What  is  lappet  weaving? 

Jacquard  Weave 

4.  Examine  a  piece  of  carpet.     Notice  the  elaborate  designs  or 
patterns  and  the  number  of  colors  used.     When  the  figures  are 
elaborate  they  cannot  be  stitched  in  by  simple  lappet  weaving. 
A    special  attachment   called    the  Jacquard  apparatus    is  placed 
on  top  of  the  loom.     This  apparatus  controls  the  warp  threads 
so  that  a  great  many  sheds  may  be  formed  and  elaborate  figures 
woven  into  fabrics.     This  is  called  Jacquard  weaving. 

a.  What  must  be  added  to  a  loom  for  Jacquard  weaving? 

b.  What  is  the  use  of  the  Jacquard  apparatus? 

c.  When  is  the  Jacquard  weave  used  instead  of  lappet  weave? 

5.  Read  Textiles,  page  61. 

Double  Cloth  Weave 

6.  Examine   the   sample   of   double   cloth.     Notice   that   there 
are  two  single  cloths.     They  are  combined  into  one  by  here  and 
there  lacing  the  warp  and  filling  of  one  cloth  into  the  warp  and 
filling  of  the  other.     In  this  way  they  are  fastened  together  securely. 

a.  What  color  is  the  sample  on  one  side?    the  other? 
6.  Of  what  is  double  cloth  composed? 

c.  How  are  the  single  cloths  combined  into  one? 

d.  Read   Textiles,  page  62.     What  are  some  of  the  uses  of 
double  cloth? 

Classes  of  Weave 

7.  How  many  classes  of  weave  have  been  studied? 

8.  Name  the  classes  of  weave. 

9.  Name  a  fabric  to  illustrate  each  weave, 


EXPERIMENTS  273 

Experiment  7  —  Fibers 

Apparatus:  Pick  glass,  dissecting  needle. 
Materials:  Samples    of    broadcloth,  mohair,    silk, 

cotton  cloth,  linen. 
References:  Textiles,  pages  1;  97,  Mohair;  203,  Silk; 

105,  Cotton;    193,  Linen;    199,  Hemp; 

201,  Jute;  232,  Ramie;  233,  Pineapple. 

Directions 

1.  Read  Textiles,  page  1,  paragraph  1.     What  are  textiles? 

2.  Cloth  is  composed  of  yarn.     Yarn  in  its  turn  is  composed  of 
many  small  ends  called  fibers. 

3.  Look  at  the  sample  of  broadcloth.     If  you  did  not  know  this 
to  be  broadcloth  you  would  speak  of  it  as  woolen  goods.     Detach 
from  the  sample  a  filling  thread  and  separate  it  into  fibers.     These 
are  woolen  fibers. 

4.  Examine  the  sample  of  mohair  and  separate  a  filling  thread 
into  fibers.     This  takes  the  name  mohair  from  the  fibers  which 
compose  it.     Mohair  is  obtained  from  the  Angora  goat. 

5.  Examine  a  sample  of  silk,  also  a  detached  filling  thread.     The 
silk  fiber  consists  of  a  thread  spun  by  the  silk  worm. 

6.  Wool,  mohair,  and  silk  fibers  are  obtained  from  the  animals, 
the  sheep,  goat,  and  silk  worm,  hence  they  are  called  animal  fibers. 

7.  Detach  from  the  sample  of  cotton  cloth  a  filling  thread  and 
separate  it  into  fibers.     These  are  cotton  fibers  and  are  obtained 
from  the  cotton  plant. 

8.  Examine  the  sample  of  linen,  a  filling  thread  and  its  fibers. 
Linen  is  composed  of  fibers  obtained  from  the  flax  plant. 

9.  Cotton  and  linen  fibers  are  obtained  from  plants,  and  are 
called  vegetable  fibers.     There  are  other  vegetable  fibers  such  as 
jute,  hemp,  ramie,  pineapple,  etc.,  but  cotton  and  linen  are  the 
most  important. 

10.  Name  the  most  valuable  fibers  for  textile  use. 

Questions 

1.  Of  what  is  cloth  composed? 

2.  Of  what  does  yarn  consist? 


274  EXPERIMENTS 

3.  How  are  the  fibers  made  to  join  in  one  long  thread?     (See 
Experiment   1.) 

4.  Of  what  fibers  are  woolen  and  worsted  goods  composed? 

5.  Of  what  animal  is  wool  the  covering? 

6.  Of  what  fibers  is  mohair  composed? 

7.  From  what  animal  is  mohair  obtained? 

8.  Of  what  does  the  silk  fiber  consist? 

9.  What  are  the  animal  fibers? 

10.  Why  are  they  called  animal  fibers? 

11.  Of  what  fibers  is  cotton  cloth  composed? 

12.  From  what  plant  are  cotton  fibers  obtained? 

13.  From  what  plant  is  the  linen  fiber  obtained? 

14.  What  are  the  most  important  vegetable  fibers? 

15.  Name  four  other  vegetable  fibers. 

16.  Why  are  these  fibers  called  vegetable  fibers? 

Experiment  8  —  Wool  Fiber 

Apparatus:  Pick  glass,  microscope,  2  pine  cones,  foot-rule. 
Materials:  Raw  wool,  woolen  yarn. 
Reference:   Textiles,  chapter  I. 

Directions 

L  Separate  a  strand  of  woolen  yarn  into  fibers.  Examine  both 
these  fibers  and  fibers  pulled  from  the  raw  wool.  Would  you 
describe  these  fibers  as  coarse  or  fine? 

2.  How  do  the  fibers  feel  to  touch? 

3.  Test  the  strength  of  the  wool  fibers  by  trying  to  break  them. 

4.  Measure  the  length  of  several  fibers. 

5.  Why  was  it  difficult  to  straighten  the  fibers  to  measure  them? 

6.  Extend  the  fiber  to  its  full  length,  then  release.     How  does 
this  prove  the  fiber  to  be  elastic? 

7.  Examine  the  fibers  under  the -microscope.     Describe.     Notice 
that  the  wool   fiber   is   cylindrical   in   shape.     Notice    that  it  is 
covered  with  scales  which  overlap  much  as  do  the  tiles  of  a  roof 
or  the  spines  of  a  pine  cone. 

8.  Hold  one  pine  cone  with  the  spines  pointing  upward.     With 
the  spines  of  the  other  pointing  downward  press  the  second  cone 


EXPERIMENTS  275 

down  on  the  first.  What  happens?  Just  so  the  scales  or  points 
of  the  wool  fibers  hook  into  one  another  and  interlock.  These 
scales  or  serrations  give  to  the  wool  fiber  its  chief  characteristic 
which  is  the  power  of  interlocking  known  as  felting  or  shrinking. 

9.  See  Textiles,  page  2,  the  drawing  of  a  magnified  wool  fiber. 
Make  a  drawing  of  a  wool  fiber. 

10.  Examine  under  the  microscope  a  hair  from  your  head.     Wool 
is  only  a  variety  of  hair.     Notice  that  the  scales  on  the  hair  lie 
close  to  the  stem  and  do  not  project  as  in  the  woolen  fiber,  hence 
hair  fibers  cannot  interlock  as  wool  fibers  do.     The  scales  lying 
close  to  the  hair  give  a  smooth  surface  to  the  fiber  and  make  luster 
a  characteristic. 

11.  Compare  the  wool  fiber  with  hair,  noting  two  differences. 

Questions 

1.  With  what  is  the  wool  fiber  covered? 

2.  Of  what  advantage  are  these  scales  or  points? 

3.  What  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  wool? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  shrinking  or  felting  power? 

5.  Name  five  characteristics  of  the  wool  fiber. 

Experiment  9  —  Mohair  Fiber 

Apparatus:  Microscope,  foot-rule. 

Materials:  Wool  fibers,  mohair  fibers,  sample  of  mohair 

brilliantine. 
References:   Textiles,  pages  1,  37,  97. 

Directions 

1.  Pull  a  mohair  fiber  from  the  fleece.     Hold  it  up  to  the  light. 
Describe  the  fiber  as  you  see  it. 

2.  Hold  a  mohair  fiber  and  a  wool  fiber  side  by  side  to  the  light. 
Note  the  differences. 

3.  Measure  several  mohair  fibers. 

4.  Examine  the  mohair  fiber  under  the  microscope.     The  fiber 
is  covered  with  scales,  but  they  lie  close  to  the  fiber  and  do  not 
project  in  points  as  do  the  scales  on  the  wool  fiber,  hence  mohair 
will  not  felt  to  any  degree. 


276  EXPERIMENTS 

5.  The  Angora  goat  of  Asia  Minor  furnishes  the  mohair.     This 
goat  is  being  raised  in  the  western  states  of  the  United  States 
now. 

6.  Detach  from  the  sample  of  mohair  brilliantine  a  warp  thread; 
a  filling  thread.     Which  is  mohair?     Which  is  cotton? 

7.  What  word  would  describe  the  feel  of  mohair  brilliantine? 
the  appearance? 

8.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  mohair  fiber? 

9.  What  are  the  uses  of  mohair?     Mohair  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  plushes,  dress  fabrics,  and  imitation  furs. 

Questions 

1.  Why  will  mohair  not  felt  as  wool  does? 

2.  The  scales  lying  close  to  the  stem  will  have  what  effect  on 
the  surface  of  the  fiber? 

3.  What  effect  will  a  smooth  surface  have  on  light? 

4.  What  characteristic  is  given  to  mohair  from  the  fact  that 
the  smooth  surface  reflects  light? 

5.  From  what  animal  is  mohair  obtained  in  greatest  quantity? 

6.  Where  is  mohair  being  grown  in  the  United  States? 

Experiment  10  —  Cotton  Fiber 

Apparatus:  Microscope,  foot-rule. 

Materials:  Tuft  of  cotton  fibers,  cotton  ball,  seeds. 

Reference:   Textiles,  chapter  ix,  page  105. 

Directions 

1.  Hold  a  tuft  of  cotton  fibers  tightly  between  the  fingers  and 
thumb  of  each  hand  and  pull  apart  with  a  jerk.     What  is  your 
judgment  of  the  strength  of  the  staple  (fiber)? 

2.  Loosen  gently  the  fibers  of  one  of  the  tufts  you  have  pulled 
apart.     What  is  the  feel  of  cotton?  the  appearance  as  you  hold 
it  to  the  light? 

3.  Detach  several  fibers  one  by  one.     How  does  the  length  com- 
pare with  that  of  the  wool  and  mohair?     Measure  and  record  the 
length  of  three  fibers. 


EXPERIMENTS  277 

4.  How  do  cotton  fibers  compare  in  fineness  with  wool  fibers? 

5.  Compare  the  elasticity  of  cotton  with  that  of  wool. 

6.  Examine  the  cotton  fibers  under  the  microscope.     Observe 
that  the  enlarged  fiber  looks  like  a  twisted  ribbon.     When  the 
fiber  was  growing  it  was  cylindrical  in  shape.     When  ripe  the  plant 
drew  back  its  life-giving  fluid  from  the  fiber  and  it  collapsed  and 
twisted  like   a   corkscrew.     The  twist  is   peculiar  to   the   cotton, 
being  present  in  no  other  fiber.     The  twist  makes  the  cotton  fiber 
suitable  for  spinning,  helping  to  hold  the  short  fibers  together. 

7.  Read  of  the  cotton  plant  from  Textiles,  chapter  ix. 

8.  The  four  chief  cotton  producing  countries  are  the  United 
States,  Egypt,  India,  Brazil. 

9.  There  are  several   classifications  of  cotton.     The  most  com- 
mon are  Sea  Island   (in  the  lead);    Egyptian   (a  close  second); 
Uplands  (that  of  the  United  States,  southern  part) ;  and  Peruvian. 

10.  Uplands  is  the  most  common  cotton  of  our  South. 

Questions 

1.  What  characteristic  causes  the  cotton  fiber  to  be  easily  recog- 
nized under  the  microscope? 

2.  Why  does  the  twist  render  the  cotton  fiber  suitable  for  spin- 
ning? 

3.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  cotton  fiber? 

4.  Why  is  cotton  known  as  a  vegetable  fiber? 

5.  Name  the  chief  cotton  producing  countries. 

6.  What  are  the  most  common  classifications  of  cotton? 

7.  What  is  the  finest  growth  of  cotton?     (Sea  Island  commands 
at  the  present  time  $1.00  a  lb.,  while  Middling  Uplands  brings 
15  cents.) 

8.  Where  is  cotton  known  as  Upland  Cotton  grown? 


Experiment  11  —  Silk  Fiber 

Apparatus:  Tripod,  alcohol  lamp,  small  pan  of  water, 

lead  pencil. 
Material:  Silk  cocoon. 
Reference:   Textiles,  chapter  xiii,  page  203. 


278  EXPERIMENTS 

Directions 

1.  Place  the  cocoon  in  a  small  pan  of  water.     Apply  heat  to  the 
pan  until  the  water  boils.     The  cocoon  is  placed  in  hot  water  to 
soften  the  glue  which  holds  the  fibers  together. 

2.  Remove  the  outside  loose  fibers  which  cannot  be  reeled.     This 
tangled  silk  on  the  outside  of  the  cocoon  is  called  floss. 

3.  Brush  the  finger  over  the  cocoon  to  find  the  loose  ends.     Un- 
wind carefully  until  you  find  a  continuous  end.     Wind  or  reel  the 
silk  fiber  over  a  lead  pencil. 

4.  The  silk  fiber  is  the  most  beautiful  and  perfect  of  all  fibers. 

5.  Hold  the  cocoon  to  the  light  as  you  reel.     How  does  the  silk 
fiber  compare  in  fineness  with  the  wool  and  cotton  fibers? 

6.  The  silk  fiber  is  from  1000  to  4000  feet  long.     Unlike  the  other 
fibers  the  silk  fiber  is  already  a  thread. 

7.  How  does  light  effect  the  silk  fiber?     When  the  gum  is  thor- 
oughly washed  off  the  silk  takes  on  its  luster  which  is  its  chief 
characteristic. 

8.  Break   the   fiber   after   you   have   reeled   a   small   quantity. 
Notice  how  the  fiber  springs   back.      Extend  and   release   again. 
What  characteristic  does  this  illustrate? 

9.  Examine  the  silk  fiber  under  the  microscope.     Notice  that 
it  is  round  and  smooth  and  resembles  a  glass  rod.     It  shows  what 
appear  to  be  two  fibers  united  by  the  gum  secreted  at  the  same 
time  that   the   fiber  was   formed.     Describe   the   silk   fiber   as  it 
appears  under  the  microscope. 

10.  Silk  is  taken  from  the  reel  and  twisted  into  a  skein  of  raw 
silk  and  thus  exported. 

11.  The  manufacture  in  the  United  States  begins  with  raw  silk. 
It  is  handled  here  first  by  the  throwster  who  winds  it  from  the  skein 
and  makes  different  varieties  of  thread. 

Questions 

1.  Why  is  the  silk  cocoon  first  placed  in  hot  water? 

2.  What  is  known  as  floss? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  silk  reeling? 

4.  What  can  you  say  of  the  length  of  the  silk  fiber? 

5.  In  what  way  does  the  silk  fiber  differ  from  the  other  fibers? 


EXPERIMENTS  279 

6.  What  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  silk  fiber? 

7.  What  are  other  characteristics  of  the  silk  fiber? 

8.  In  what  form  is  silk  exported? 

9.  In  what  countries  is  most  of  the  raw  silk  produced?     (See 
Textiles,  page  206.) 

10.  With  what  does  the  silk  manufacture  in  the  United  States 
begin? 

11.  Who  is  the  throwster  and  what  is  his  work? 

Experiment  12  —  Linen  Fiber 

Apparatus:  Microscope. 

Material:  Flax  fibers. 

Reference:   Textiles,  chapter  xv,  page  193. 

Directions 

1.  The  linen  fiber  is  obtained  from  the  flax  plant.     Certain  fibers, 
such  as  flax,  jute,  and  ramie,  are  obtained  from  the  stem  of  the 
plant,  hence  are  known  as  bast  fibers,  and  flax  is  the  most  impor- 
tant bast  fiber. 

2.  It  is  difficult  to  separate  the  flax  or  linen  fiber  from  the  woody 
part  of  the  stem.     The  process  is  called  retting,  which  is  really 
rotting  by  soaking  the  stem  in  water. 

3.  Before  the  fibers  are  entirely  free  from  the  woody  part  of  the 
plant  they  undergo  the  processes  of  beating,  breaking,  scutching, 
hackling,  etc. 

4.  Read  the  account  of  each  process.    SeeTextiles,  pages  194, 195. 

5.  Measure  and  record  the  length  of  two  linen  fibers. 

6.  Test  the  strength  by  trying  to  break  the  fiber. 

7.  Test  for  elasticity. 

8.  What  is  the  appearance  of  the  linen  fiber  when  held  to  the 
light? 

9.  What  is  the  color  of  the  fiber?     What  is  the  process  called  by 
which  linen  is  whitened?     (Bleaching.) 

10.  Examine  the  flax  fibers  under  the  microscope.     Observe  that 
the  fibers  look  like  long  cylindrical  tubes.     Describe  the  appearance 
of  linen  fibers  under  the  microscope. 

11.  The  best  flax  is  grown  in  Belgium  and  Ireland. 


280  EXPERIMENTS 

Questions 

1.  From  what  part  of  the  plant  are  bast  fibers  obtained? 

2.  Name  some  bast  fibers. 

3.  What  is  the  most  important  bast  fiber? 

4.  What  is  retting? 

5.  For  what  purpose  is  linen  subjected  to  retting? 

6.  Through  what  five  processes  does  the  flax  fiber  pass  before 
it  is  free? 

7.  Where  is  the  best  flax  grown? 

Experiment  13  —  Carding 

Apparatus:  A  pair  of  hand  cards. 
Material:  Small  quantity  of  scoured  wool. 
References:   Textiles,  pages  39  and  50. 

Directions 

1.  Examine  the  hand  cards.     Notice  that  there  is  a  foundation 
of  several  layers  of  leather.     Notice  that  this  foundation  is  covered 
with  staples  of  steel  wire.     Notice  that  the  staples  are  shaped  like 
the  letter  U  with  the  points  turned  one  way.     The  covering  of 
the  hand  cards  is  called  card  clothing. 

2.  Hold  one  hand  card  in  the  left  hand,  face  up,  wires  pointing 
to  the  left.     Spread  the  wool  over  the  pointed  wires  of  this  card. 

3.  Hold  the  other  card  in  the  right  hand,  face  down,  with  the 
wires  pointing  to  the  right.     Bring  the  pointed  wires  of  this  card 
down  on  the  wool  and   drag  it  lightly  through  the  wires  of  the 
other  card.     Repeat  several  times. 

4.  You  have  been  carding  wool.     The  sharp  points  have  been 
tearing  the  wool  apart  or  disentangling  the  fibers.     Carding  brushes 
the  fibers  out  smooth  and  makes  them  somewhat  parallel.     It 
forms  them  into  a  thin  sheet. 

5.  The  wool  must  be  carded  many  times  before  it  is  sufficiently 
disentangled  for  drawing  and  spinning.     In  order  to  card  again 
the  hand  card  must  be  stripped  of  the  wool  so  that  it   may  be 
dragged  again  through  the  staples. 

6.  Hold  the  hand  card,   which  is  in  your  right  hand,   erect. 
Notice  that  the  wires  point  downward.     Move  the  other  hand 


EXPERIMENTS  281 

downward  over  the  wires.  Notice  that  the  surface  is  smooth. 
The  points  do  not  prick  as  they  will  if  you  try  to  brush  the  hand 
upwards  over  the  wires/ 

7.  Hold  the  card  in  the  left  hand  in  a  similar  position.     Raise 
and  bring  the  sharp  wires  of  this  card  down  on  the  smooth  surface 
of  the  other  card  and  strip  it  of  its  wool. 

8.  Card  again,   then  strip   again.     Repeat  several   times   until 
the  fibers  are  thoroughly  disentangled. 

9.  This  carding  and  stripping,  once  done  by  hand,  is  now  done  in 
the  mill  by  a  power  machine  called  the  card.     (See  picture,  Textiles, 
page  38.)     Notice  that  instead  of  cards  this  machine  consists  of 
rollers  or  cylinders.     Some  are  carding  cylinders   and  some  are 
stripping  cylinders.     The  principle  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  hand 
cards.     The  wool  is  carded  and  stripped  again  and  again  and  is 
finally  delivered  in  a  soft,  fluffy  rope  called  a  sliver  ready  for  draw- 
ing and  spinning. 

Questions 

1.  What  is  the  covering  of  the  hand  card  called? 

2.  Describe  card  clothing. 

3.  What  does  carding  do  to  the  wool?     . 

4.  When  the  sharp  wires  of  one  cylinder  meet  the  sharp  pointed 
wires  of  another  cylinder  what  is  the  action  on  the  wool? 

5.  If  the  sharp  points  of  one  cylinder  meet  the  smooth  surface 
of  another  cylinder  what  happens  to  the  wool  on  that  cylinder? 

6.  In  what  form  does  the  wool  finally  leave  the  machine?     What 
name  is  given  to  this  fluffy  rope? 

7.  How  was  carding  done  in  the  early  days?     How  is  it  done 
now? 

8.  In  what  way  is  the  principle  of  the  hand  cards  the  same  as 
that  of  the  card  of  the  mill? 

Experiment  14  —  Drawing  and  Spinning 

Apparatus:  Foot-rule,  elastic  band. 
Material:  Small  quantity  of  scoured  wool. 

References:   Textiles,  pages  4,  44,  134;    Sections:   Spinning:  Mule 
Spinning. 


282  EXPERIMENTS 

Directions 

1.  Observe  the  mass  of  wool  fibers.     The  wool  was  clipped  from 
the  sheep,  washed,  and  oiled  to  make  it  smooth  and  pliable. 

2.  With  the  fingers  gently  open  up  or  loosen  the  mass  of  wool 
fibers.     In  the  mill  this  is  done  by  a  machine  called  the  card.     (See 
picture,  Textiles,  page  38.)     And  the  process  itself  is  called  carding. 

3.  Gently  draw  out  the  mass  of  fibers  until  you  have  drawn  it 
into  one  long  strand. 

4.  Draw  it  again  and  again  until  to  draw  it  would  cause  it  to 
break. 

5.  This  process  in  the  mill  is  known  as  drawing.     The  wool 
passes  through  machine  after  machine,  which  gradually  reduces 
the  thickness  of  the  strand. 

6.  You  have  now  a  strand  called  roving,  but  not  a  thread  with 
which  you  could  weave.     What  is  called  the  strand?     Why  could 
you  not  weave  with  it  as  it  is?     If  you  pulled  the  roving  apart  it 
would  separate  into  a  number  of  small  ends.     What  name  is  given 
to  these  ends? 

7.  It  is  necessary  to  hold  these  fibers  together  in  a  thread.     Hold 
the  roving  in  the  left  hand  and  with  the  right  hand  draw  the  fibers 
out  several  inches.     As  you  draw,  twist  the  roving  between  the 
fingers  and  thumb.     The  twisting  is  called  spinning. 

8.  When  you  have  twisted  sufficient  yarn  to  attach  to  the  end 
of  a  foot-rule,  do  so.     Give  a  whirl  to  the  ruler,  which  is  taking  the 
place  of  the  old-time  spindle,  and  let  it  drop.     Continue  to  whirl 
the  ruler  and  notice  that  as  it  revolves  the  yarn  is  twisting.     When 
well  twisted,  wind  the  yarn  on  the  ruler.     There  was  a  hook  on  the 
old-time  spindle.     Instead  of  the  hook,  hold  the  wound  yarn  in 
place  by  an  elastic  band.     Draw  out  several  inches  again  and 
repeat. 

9.  With  the  spindle  a  distaff  was  used.     It  held  the  roving  which 
you  now  hold  in  your  left  hand.     (See  picture  of  distaff  and  spindle.) 

10.  Define  spinning;  see   Textiles,  page  4,  footnote.     The  early 
use  of  the  spindle  was  the  same  as  its  use  of  to-day.     In  what  two 
ways  is  the  spindle  of  use? 

11.  The  improvement  on  the  distaff  and  spindle  was  the  spinning 
wheel.     Now  the  spinning  frame  in  the  mill  has  replaced  both. 


EXPERIMENTS  283 

Questions 

1.  After  shearing,  through  what  two  processes  does  wool  pass? 

2.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  oil  wool? 

3.  What  is  the  work  of  the  card  ? 

4.  Explain  the  process  called  drawing.     Why  is  it  necessary  to 
repeat  the  operation  several  times? 

5.  What  followed  the  distaff  and  spindle  in  the  development  of 
spinning? 

6.  On  what  is  the  spinning  done  now  in  the  mill?     See  Textiles, 
picture,  pages  135,  137. 

Experiment  15  —  Gilling  and  Combing 

Apparatus:  Coarse  comb,  fine  comb. 
Material:  Small  quantity  of  scoured  wool. 
Reference:   Textiles,  pages  39-44. 

Directions 

1.  Open  up  the  wool  a  little  with  the  fingers.     Do  this  in  place 
of  carding,  as  you  need  but  a  small  quantity. 

2.  You  comb  your  hair  to  make  the  hairs  lie  parallel,  side  by  side, 
in  place.     Combs  are  used  on  wool  for  just  the  same  purpose,  but 
the  first  process  of  combing  is  not  known  as  such.     It  is  called 
gilling,  and  the  combs  themselves  are  called  fallers.     The  machines 
are  known  as  gill  boxes.     See  Textiles,  page  43. 

3.  Hold  the  carded  wool  in  the  left  hand  in  the  middle  of  the 
strand.     With  the  coarse  comb  in  the  right  hand,  comb  and  thus 
straighten  the  fibers  first  at  one  end  then  at  the  other.     This  is 
gilling.    The  principle  of  gilling  is  to  comb  the  fibers  more  and  more 
nearly  parallel  and  to  draw  them  out  into  more  even  strands. 

4.  The  coarse  comb  causes  the  hairs  to  lie  parallel.     A  fine  comb 
will  further  straighten  the  hairs,  but  it  will  also  remove  the  snarled, 
tangled,  short  hairs.     Again  wool  is  to  be  treated  like  hair.     Hold 
the  strand  in  the  middle  as  before.     Comb  each  end  with  the  fine 
comb.     Notice  that  the  fine  comb  is  removing  the  short  fibers  and 
leaving  the  long  fibers  between  the  fingers.     This  is  the  second 
process  of  combing,  and  is  called  combing. 

5.  The  long  fibers  are  called  tops  and  the  short  fibers  are  known 


284  EXPERIMENTS 

as  noils.1     Combing  is  the  process  which  separates  the  long  fibers 
known  as  tops  from  the  short  fibers  known  as  noils. 

6.  The  combing  machine  in  the  mill  is  a  very  complicated  one. 
See  picture,  Textiles,  page  41. 

7.  Gill  and  comb  several  strands  of  wool. 

8.  Top  is  too  delicate,  as  it  comes  from  the  comb,  to  be  handled. 
The  next  process  is  to  combine  several  strands  into  one.     Combine 
the  several  strands  you  have  gilled  and  combed.     Comb  this  one 
end  with  the  coarse  comb  again  to  be  sure  that  the  fibers  are  per- 
fectly parallel. 

9.  You  gilled,  combed,  and  gilled  again.     So  it  is  in  the  mill. 
After  combing,  the  wool  is  gilled  again  by  machines   known  as 
finisher  gill  boxes,  and  wound  into  a  ball  called  a  top. 

10.  A  top  differs  from  top.      Top  is  the  strand  of  long  fibers  which 
comes  from  the  comb.     A  top  is  the  ball  of  combed  wool  as  it  comes 
from  the  finisher  gill  boxes.     It  weighs  from  7  to  12  Ibs.  and  con- 
tains 200  to  250  yds. 

11.  The  wool  is  now  ready  for  the  next  processes  —  those  of  draw- 
ing and  spinning. 

Questions 

1.  Why  is  the  hair  combed?     Why  is  wool  combed? 

2.  What  is  the  first  process  of  combing  called?     What  name  is 
given  to  the  combs  used  in  gilling?    What  are  the  machines  called? 

3.  What  is  the  principle  of  gilling? 

4.  How  does  a  fine  comb  act  on  the  hair? 

5.  When  you  combed  the  wool  with  the  fine  comb  what  happened? 

6.  What  are  the  long  fibers  called?  the  short  ?    Of  which  are  there 
more? 

7.  What  is  the  second  process  of  combing  called? 

8.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  combine  several  strands  of  top  into  one 
end? 

9.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  gill  again  after  combing? 

10.  In  what  form  does  the  wool  finally  leave  the  finisher  gill 
boxes? 

11.  What  is  a  top? 

1  In  the  case  of  linen  the  short  fibers  separated  by  combing  are  called 
tow,  and  the  long  fibers  line. 


EXPERIMENTS  285 

12.  What  two  processes  follow  carding? 

13.  For  what  two  processes  is  wool  now  ready? 

Experiment  16  —  Raw  Wool  to  Yarn 

Apparatus:  Hand  cards,  coarse  and  fine  combs,  pencil. 

Material:  Scoured  wool. 

Reference:  The  preceding  experiments. 

Directions 

1.  This  wool  has  already  been  subjected  to  the  three  operations 
of  shearing,  scouring,  and  oiling. 

2.  Card  the  wool.     What  does  carding  do  to  the  wool? 

3.  Strip  the  cards.     Rub  the  sheet  of  fibers  between  the  palms 
of  the  hands  into  the  form  of  a  strand.     It  is  in  this  form  that  it 
leaves  the  card  of  the  mill,  and  it  is  known  as  a  sliver  of  wool. 

4.  Pull  about  three  inches  of  wool  from  the  sliver  and  perform 
upon  it  the  operation  of  gilling  by  combing  it  with  the  coarse 
comb. 

5.  Follow  the  gilling  by  the  operation  of  combing,  which  you  will 
do  by  combing  again,  this  time  with  a  fine  comb. 

6.  Pull  about  three  inches  again  from  the  sliver.     Continue  to 
gill  and  comb  by  section  until  the  entire  sliver  has  been  gilled  and 
combed. 

7.  Combine  several  strands  into  one  and  subject  the  one  strand 
to  a  second  process  of  gilling  to  make  sure  that  all  fibers  are  side 
by  side. 

8.  Gently  draw  out  this  strand  of  combed  long  fibers  known 
as  top.     As  you  draw,  spin.     As  you  spin,  wind  on  a  lead  pencil. 
The  fineness  of  the  yarn  depends  on  the  amount  of  drawing  and 
twisting. 

9.  What  is  the  source  of  wool?     You  began  with  wool,  covering 
of  the  sheep's  body,  and  after  subjecting  it  to  a  series  of  operations 
you  have  converted  it  into  yarn  which  is  ready  for  weaving. 

10.  Name  the  operations  in  order,   through  which  raw   wool 
passes  before  it  finally  becomes  yarn. 


286  EXPERIMENTS 

Questions 

1.  What  are  the  first  three  processes  through  which  wool  passes? 
What  is  shearing?  scouring? 

2.  Why  is  wool  oiled? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  a  sliver  of  wool? 

4.  What  does  gilling  do  to  the  wool? 

5.  What  does  combing  do  to  the  wool? 

6.  Why  is  there  another  operation  of  gilling  after  combing? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  drawing  f  spinning  ? 

8.  What  name  is  given  to  the  wool  wound  on  the  pencil? 

9.  On  what  does  the  fineness  of  the  yarn  depend? 

Experiment  17  —  Difference  between  Woolen 
and  Worsted  Yarn 

Apparatus:  Pick  glass. 

Materials:  Sample  of  woolen  cloth  and  worsted  cloth. 

References:   Textiles,  pages  50  and  51. 

Directions 

Take  a  piece  of  worsted  fabric  and  separate  a  piece  of  yarn 
from  either  the  warp  or  filling.  Do  the  same  with  a  piece  of  woolen 
fabric.  Notice  the  appearance  of  each  piece  of  yarn.  Which  is 
smoother?  What  effect  would  friction  have  on  the  worsted  yarn  ? 
the  woolen  yarn?  Which  sample  of  yarn  would  shine  and  reflect 
the  light? 

Experiment  18  —  Burling  and  Mending 

Apparatus:  Chalk,  scissors,  dissecting  pin,  needle, 

pick  glass. 

Material :  4  square  inches  of  cloth  from  the  loom. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  71. 

Directions 

1.  Cloth  from  the  loom  is  far  from  being  a  finished  product. 
It  must  pass  through  several  processes  before  it  is  finished.     These 
processes  are  known  as  finishing. 

2.  What  is  the  feel  of  this  cloth? 


EXPERIMENTS  287 

3.  Hold  the  cloth  to  the  light  and  look  through  it.     Note  the 
imperfections  and  chalk  them.     What  defects  did  you  notice? 

4.  Place  the  cloth  on  the  desk,  face  down.     Rub  the  fingers  over 
the  back  of  the  cloth.     When  the  fingers  locate  a  knot,  raise  it  with 
the  dissecting  needle  to  be  cut  off  later. 

5.  Reverse  the  cloth.     Rub  the  fingers  over  the  face.     When 
a  knot  is  found,  force  it  through  to  the  back  with  the  dissecting 
needle.     All  the  knots  are  on  one  side  now.     Clip  them  off  with  the 
scissors.     This  is  called  burling  and  is  the  first  process  of  finishing. 

6.  Hold  the  cloth  to  the  light.     Notice  where  an  entire  filling 
thread  is  missing.     This  is  known  as  a  full  miss  pick.     When  part 
of  a  filling  thread  is  missing  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  half  miss  pick.     In 
general  what  does  a  miss  pick  mean? 

7.  Unravel  a  filling  thread  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  cloth. 
With  it  thread  a  needle  and  replace  the  missing  pick.     Follow  the 
weave  closely,  using  a  pick  glass  as  an  aid.     You  are  performing 
the  second  process  of  finishing,  that  of  mending. 

8.  If  a  warp  end  is  missing  replace  it. 


1.  What  is  meant  by  finishing? 

2.  What  is  the  first  process  of  finishing?     What  is  burling? 

3.  What  is  a  full  miss  pick?  a  half  miss  pick? 

4.  What  is  the  second  process  of  finishing?     What  is  mending? 
Of  what  must  the  mender  be  careful? 

Experiment  19  —  Removal  of  Stains 

Material:  Stained  fabrics. 

Textiles  are  easily  stained,  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  know  some- 
thing about  the  character  of  stains  and  the  methods  of  removal. 
Stains  may  be  roughly  divided  into  the  following  classes: 

a.  Stains  from  foods,  such  as  grease  and  fruit  acids. 

6.  Stains  from  machinery,  as  wheel  grease  and  oils. 

c.  Blood  stains. 

d.  Inks. 

e.  Chemicals,  such  as  acids,  alkalies. 

Food  stains  are  usually  due  either  to  grease  contained  in  soup, 


288  EXPERIMENTS 

meat,  milk,  etc.,  or  to  sugar  contained  in  candies  or  preserves,  or 
to  fruit  acids  contained  in  fresh  fruits  or  sauces. 

Wheel  grease  and  lubricant  stains  are  obtained  from  various  parts 
of  machines,  like  elevators,  street  cars,  etc.  After  the  cloth  leaves 
the  loom  it  often  contains  spots  of  grease,  oil,  or  dirt  stains  due  to 
drippings  from  the  loom  or  overhead  machinery.  These  are 
removed  by  means  of  liquids  called  solvents  that  dissolve  the  stain. 
Ether  is  the  principal  solvent  used  in  the  mill  to  remove  small 
stains. 

Very  few  people  realize  that  vapors  of  cooked  food  and  fat, 
unless  carried  out  of  a  house,  will  condense  and  settle  on  fabrics 
in  the  form  of  a  film  which  collects  a  great  deal  of  dust.  (A  bad 
grease  spot  usually  has  a  neglected  grease  spot  for  a  foundation.) 
In  order  to  break  up  this  film  it  is  necessary  to  separate  the 
entangled  dust.  This  is  performed  by  some  mechanical  means, 
such  as  shaking  and  brushing. 

The  most  effective  method  of  removing  a  stain  is  to  place  a  circle 
of  absorbent  material1  around  the  spot  to  take  up  the  excess  of 
liquid.  A  white  cloth  should  be  placed  under  the  fabric  to  absorb 
the  solvent  and  show  when  the  goods  are  clean.  Then  apply  the 
solvent  with  a  cloth  of  the  same  color  and  texture  (satin  is  excel- 
lent as  it  does  not  grow  linty)  and  rub  from  outside  the  spot  to 
the  center  to  prevent  spreading.  It  is  necessary  to  rub  very 
carefully  as  excessive  rubbing  will  remove  the  nap  and  change 
the  color.  One  of  the  great  dangers  in  removing  a  stain  is 
that  you  may  spoil  the  fabric.  Therefore  great  care  must  be 
exercised. 

The  principal  solvents  are  ether,  chloroform,  alcohol,  turpentine, 
benzene,  and  naphtha.  Each  solvent  may  be  used  to  best  advan- 
tage on  certain  fabrics. 

The  commercial  grades  of  the  solvents  often  contain  impurities 


1  Absorbents  are  substances  that  will  absorb  readily  excess  of  liquids; 
they  include  varieties  of  chalk,  paste  of  chalk,  or  fullers'  earth, 
rough  surface  of  a  visiting  card,  buckwheat  flour,  crumbs  of  bread, 
powdered  soapstone,  pumice,  whiting.  These  substances  are  used 
to  great  advantage  in  assisting  to  remove  stains  from  delicate  fabrics. 
They  absorb  the  excess  of  solvent  and  thus  prevent  it  from  spreading. 


EXPERIMENTS  289 

that  leave  a  brown  ring  after  evaporation.  This  brown  ring  is 
very  objectionable.  Turpentine  is  used  only  in  removing  stains 
from  coarse  fabrics.  Chloroform,  benzene,  and  naphtha  are  used 
on  ordinary  silks  and  linens.  Ether  and  chloroform  are  used  to 
best  advantage  in  removing  stains  from  delicate  silk,  as  they  sel- 
dom effect  colors  and  evaporate  very  quickly.  Of  course  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  when  a  stain  is  removed  from  a  fabric  that 
portion  that  contained  the  stain  loses  some  coloring  matter  and  feels 
rougher  than  the  other  part. 

Grease  Spots  on  Heavy  Goods  that  cannot  be  Laundered 

It  is  usually  desirable  to  use  the  following  method  in  removing 
grease  from  a  heavy  fabric,  such  as  carpets  or  colored  fabrics.  In 
case  the  grease  is  fresh,  place  over  the  stain  a  piece  of  clean  blotting 
paper  or  a  piece  of  butcher's  brown  wrapping  paper  and  underneath 
absorbent  paper  or  oil  cloth,  and  then  press  the  spot  with  a  warm 
iron.  As  heat  often  affects  the  shades  of  certain  colors  such  as 
blues,  greens,  and  reds,  it  is  best  to  hold  a  hot  iron  over  the  fabric 
and  see  if  the  grease  is  melted. 

Remove  a  stain  from  a  piece  of  carpet. 

Removal  of  Grease  and  Blood 

Ordinary  Fabrics  (wash  goods) .  Wash  the  fabric  containing  grease 
or  blood  stain  with  tepid  water  and  soap. 

Delicate  Fabrics.  As  strong  soap  will  spoil  some  colors  and  tex- 
tures it  is  necessary  to  apply  a  solvent  when  a  delicate  fabric  is 
stained. 

Remove  stains  from  a  washable  fabric  and  a  delicate  fabric. 

Removal  of  Wheel  Grease  and  Lubricants  on  Fine  Fabrics 

Wheel  grease  is  a  mixture  of  oils  and  graphite.  Apply  benzene 
to  the  wheel  grease  spot.  This  will  dissolve  the  oil,  leaving  the 
coloring  matter  (graphite)  on  the  cloth,  and  this  may  be  collected 
on  the  white  cloth  on  the  other  side. 

Remove  a  wheel  grease  stain  from  a  dress  fabric. 


290  EXPERIMENTS 

Removal  of  Acids 

Fruit  acids  and  all  others,  except  nitric  acid  may  be  removed 
by  putting  ammonia  on  the  spot.  This  will  neutralize  the  acid, 
forming  a  salt  which  may  be  either  brushed  or  washed  off.  In 
the  case  of  nitric  acid  the  fibers  of  the  cloth  are  actually  'destroyed 
and  no  amount  of  ammonia  will  restore  the  original  condition  of 
the  fabric. 

Remove  a  stain  of  orange  juice  from  a  dress  or  shirt  waist. 

Removal  of  Blood 

Blood  stains  may  be  removed  from  a  fabric  by  washing  with 
cold  or  tepid  water.  Never  use  hot  water,  as  hot  water  coagulates 
the  albumen  of  the  blood.  After  removing  the  blood  soap  and 
warm  water  may  be  used.  In  case  the  fabric  is  a  thick  cloth,  the 
blood  may  be  removed  by  applications  of  moist  starch. 

Take  different  samples  of  fabrics  and  soil  them  with  fruit  acids, 
soup,  wheel  grease,  ink,  and  blood  and  remove  them.  Exercise 
great  care  so  as  not  to  leave  a  mark  or  remove  the  coloring. 

Remove  blood  from  a  fabric. 

Questions 

1.  What  is  a  solvent?  an  absorbent? 

2.  What  is  the  best  solvent  to  be  used  in  removing  stains  from 
silks,  coarse  goods,  and  linens?  from  delicate  silks? 

3.  Why  is  a  brown  ring  often  left  after  removing  a  stain? 

4.  How  may  grease  and  blood  stain  be  removed  from  wash  goods? 

5.  What  is  wheel  grease?  How  may  it  be  removed? 

6.  How  will  ammonia  remove  acid  stains? 

7.  Does  it  remove  all?     Why  not? 

8.  Explain  the  method  of  removing  blood  stain  from  cloth. 

Experiment  20  —  Dyeing  Wool 

Apparatus:  Large  porcelain  dish  or  casserole,  filter. 
Materials:  Undyed  piece  of  woolen  and  worsted  fabric, 

undyed  yarn,  and  undyed  raw  cloth. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  65. 


EXPERIMENTS  291 

Directions 

1.  Prepare  a  solution  of  coloring  matter  by  dissolving  a  half 
ounce  of  diamond  dye  (green  or  red)  in  a  quart  of  water.     Filter 
the  solution.     Place  a  piece  of  white  woolen  cloth  in  the  liquid 
and  boil  ten  minutes.     Then  wash  the  dyed  fabric  and  notice 
whether  the  dyestuff  washes  off  or  not. 

2.  Repeat  the  experiment,  using  the  same  weight  of  undyed 
woolen  yarn.     Repeat  with  worsted  yarn. 

3.  Repeat  the  experiment  using  the  same  weight  of  wool  sliver. 

4.  Notice  which  has  the  deeper  color.     The  degree  of   color 
depends  on  the  amount  of  twist  in  yarn.     Which  sample   has 
absorbed  the  greatest  amount  of  dyestuff  from  the  liquid? 

a.  Why  is  a  yarn-dyed  fabric  faster  than  a  piece-dyed? 
6.  Why  is  a  raw  stock  dyed  fabric  better  than  piece  or  yarn 
dyed? 

Experiment  21  —  Dyeing  Cotton 

Apparatus:  Porcelain  dish,  filter  stand,  etc. 
Material:  Piece  of  cotton  cloth. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  67. 

Directions 

1.  Prepare  a  solution  of  coloring  matter  by  dissolving  a  half 
ounce    of  logwood   in   a   quart   of    water.     Filter    the    solution. 
Place  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  in  the  liquid  and  boil  ten  minutes. 
Then  wash   the   dyed   fabric   and   notice    whether   the   dyestuff 
washes  off  or  not. 

2.  Repeat  the  same  experiment  and  use  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth 
that  has  been  previously  washed  in  common  alum.1     Note  the 
effect.     Which  has  the  greater  attraction  for  dyestuffs,  cotton  or 
wool?     Why  is  alum  used? 

3.  Repeat  the  same  experiment,  using  first  the  same  weight  of 

1  Alum  in  this  case  is  called  a  mordant,  which  is  a  substance  that 
will  impregnate  the  cloth  with  something  which  will  hold  the  coloring 
matter.  Other  mordants  are  oxides,  hydroxides,  and  basic  salts  of 
aluminum,  iron,  tin,  and  chromium. 


292  EXPERIMENTS 

cotton  yarn  and  then  the  same  weight  of   cotton  sliver.     Notice 
the  results. 

Which  piece  of  cotton  holds  the  dye  best,  that  which  was  dipped 
in  alum  or  the  one  that  was  simply  boiled  in  the  solution? 

Experiment  22  —  Weighting  Silk.  —  Affinity  of  Metallic 
Salts  for  Silk 

Apparatus:  Porcelain  dishes. 

Material:  Silk  yarn. 

Reference:  Textiles,  pages  212-214. 

Directions 

1.  Weigh  separately  two  skeins  of  dry  silk  and  distinguish  skein 
No.   1  by  looping  some  cotton  thread  into  it.     Prepare  a  tepid 
bath  containing  10  gm.  strong  sumach  extract  in  400  cc.  water. 
Enter  the  skeins  of  silk  and  work  for  15  to  20  minutes,  meanwhile 
slowly  raising  the  temperature  to  about  150°  F.     Remove,  squeeze, 
rinse  with  water,  squeeze,  and  dry  skein  No.  1  for  weighing. 

2.  Meanwhile  prepare  another  bath  containing  4  gm.  of  copperas 
(ferrous  sulphate)  in  400  cc.  cold  water.     Work  skein  No.  2  in 
bath  for  10  minutes  cold.     Remove,  and  rinse  well;   save  the  iron 
bath.     Repeat  the  treatment  in  the  sumach  and  iron  baths  several 
times  more,  finally  wash  the  sumach  iron  skein  in  1  per  cent  hot 
soap   solution;    rinse,   squeeze,   and   dry.     Weigh  each  dried  and 
cooled   skein    and    note   the   increase   in  weight  of  each.     Save 
sample  for  Experiment  23  and  note  the  effect  of  weighting  on  the 
yarn. 

Experiment  23  —  Dyeing  Silk 

Apparatus:  Porcelain  dish,  filter  stand,  etc. 
Material:  Piece  of  silk  yarn. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  210. 

Directions 

1.  Prepare  a  solution  of  coloring  matter  by  dissolving  a  half 
ounce  of  logwood  in  a  quart  of  water.  Filter  the  solution. 
Place  a  piece  of  silk  skein,  from  Experiment  22,  in  the  liquid 


EXPERIMENTS  293 

and   boil   ten    minutes.     Then   wash    the    dyed   silk   and   notice 
whether  the  dyestuff  washes  off  or  not. 

2.  Repeat  the  same  experiment  using  the  same  weight  of  silk 
yarn  without  weighing  it.  Compare  the  results? 

Experiment  24  —  Test  to  Distinguish  Piece-Dyed  from 
Yarn-Dyed   Fabric 

Apparatus:  Pen  knife. 

Materials:  Woolen  and  cotton  fabrics. 

Reference:  Textiles,  pages  66-68. 

Directions 

Unravel  threads  of  the  suspected  sample,  and  with  a  blade  of 
pen  knife  note  whether  the  dyestuff  has  penetrated  through  the 
yarn  as  noted  by  the  depth  of  color  in  the  interior  of  the  yarn. 
In  case  there  is  the  same  depth  of  color  in  the  interior  as  on 
the  surface,  the  fabric  is  yarn-dyed.  If  on  the  other  hand,  the 
interior  of  the  yarn  is  not  so  highly  colored  as  the  exterior,  it  is 
piece-dyed. 

Questions 

1.  What  is  meant  by  yarn-dyed  fabric? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  piece-dyed  fabric? 

3.  How  may  the  two  be  distinguished? 

Experiment  25  —  Test  to  Distinguish  Dyed  from 
Printed  Fabrics 

Apparatus :  Knife-blade. 
Materials:  Cotton  fabrics. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  65. 

Printed  fabrics  may  be  distinguished  from  dyed  by  observing 
the  back  side  of  the  cloth,  and  noting  whether  or  not  the  pattern 
on  the  face  of  the  cloth  penetrates  through  to  the  back,  or  only  the 
outline  shows.  In  case  the  figure  or  pattern  is  on  both  sides  of  the 
fabric,  it  may  be  distinguished  from  the  dyed  by  taking  one  thread 
of  the  suspected  sample,  and  by  the  means  of  a  knife-blade  attempt- 
ing to  scrape  off  the  coloring  on  the  surface  of  the  thread.  If  the 


294  EXPERIMENTS 

dyes  tuff  has  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  the  thread,  it  is  not 
printed. 

Generally  speaking,  printed  fabrics  are  known  from  dyed  fabrics 
by  the  fact  that  the  former  have  the  design  printed  on  the  face  of 
the  cloth.  This  is  called  direct  printing.  The  best  dyed  fabrics 
are  obtained  by  dyeing  in  what  is  called  a  jig,  and  the  whole  fabric 
is  saturated  with  color.  Most,  if  not  all  the  cloths  which  you  see 
in  the  retail  dry  goods  stores  which  are  in  plain  colors  are  dyed  in 
the  jig.  Some  of  the  cheaper  qualities  of  dyed  fabrics  are  padded 
in  a  mangle,  but  there  has  been  a  very  small  quantity  of  these  goods 
on  the  market  for  many  years. 

Printed  fabrics  may  be  made  as  fast  as  dyed  fabrics;  it  all  depends 
upon  the  process  by  which  the  goods  are  converted.  Within  the 
past  few  years  great  headway  has  been  made  in  dyeing  with  what 
are  termed  vat  colors.  Indanthrene  is  a  vat  color  and  a  great  many 
mills  have  used  this  class  of  dye  successfully  in  dyeing  plain  shades. 
This  is  what  would  be  termed  &fast  color  in  every  sense  of  the  word. 
There  are  a  number  of  dyestuff  makers  in  Europe  who  put  vat 
colors  on  the  market,  but  they  all  call  them  by  different  names. 
Vat  colors  have  been  used  with  success  in  printing  during  the  past 
year  or  two,  especially  on  shirting  fabrics,  and  these  colors  are 
fast  to  both  light  and  washing.  Most  direct  colors  used  for  printing 
or  dyeing  are  equally  fast  to  light  and  washing,  but  of  course  they 
will  not  stand  the  test  as  well  as  the  vat  colors  mentioned  above. 

The  essential  qualities  of  a  good  printed  fabric  are  its  ability  to 
withstand  exposure  to  light  and  washing.  In  printing,  of  course, 
a  greater  variety  of  desirable  styles  can  be  obtained  than  by  dye- 
ing, in  fact  there  are  certain  popular  lines  of  goods  now  on  the 
market  the  effect  of  the  designs  of  which  cannot  be  obtained  in 
any  other  way  than  by  printing.  At  the  same  time,  although  the 
field  in  designing  for  dyed  fabrics  is  limited,  some  very  handsome 
effects  can  be  obtained. 

It  will  not  be  many  years  before  a  large  proportion  of  the  printed 
and  dyed  fabrics  put  on  the  market,  both  foreign  and  domestic, 
will  be  in  the  vat  colors  which,  as  stated  above,  are  very  fast. 
Even  at  the  present  time  there  are  many  mills  that  are  using 
this  class  of  colors  entirely,  especially  the  mills  which  manufacture 
woven  fabrics, 


EXPERIMENTS  295 

Questions 

1.  In  printed  fabrics  is  the  pattern  clearly  discernible  on  the 
back  of  the  cloth? 

2.  If  the  fabric  is  printed  on  both  sides,  how  may  this  fact  be 
proved? 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  printed  and  dyed  fabrics? 

Experiment  26  —  Bleaching  by  Sulphur  Dioxide 

Apparatus:  A  quart  bottle. 

Material:  Sulphur,  worsted  or  silk  fabric. 

Bleaching  powder  cannot  be  used  in  bleaching  animal  fibers 
such  as  woolen  and  silk  fabrics.  It  injures  the  fibers  and  at  the 
same  time  leaves  them  yellow. 

Animal  fibers  are  best  bleached  by  immersing  in  an  aqueous 
solution  of  sulphurous  acid  or  exposing  them  to  fumes  of  burning 
sulphur. 

Wet  a  piece  of  dyed  worsted  or  silk  fabric  and  hang  it  in  a 
quart  bottle  containing  fumes  of  burning  sulphur.1  The  fumes 
of  burning  sulphur  have  an  affinity  for  coloring  matter  —  dyestuff. 
The  fumes  (called  sulphur  dioxide)  do  not  in  most  cases  destroy 
the  coloring  matter  as  chlorine  does,  but  simply  combine  with 
it  to  form  colorless  compounds  which  can  be  destroyed.  The 
color  can  be  restored  by  exposing  the  bleached  fabric  to  dilute 
sulphuric  acid. 

Questions 

1.  Why  is  it  necessary  that  the  fabric  be  moist  in  order  to  be 
bleached  by  sulphur  dioxide  fumes? 

2.  What  becomes  of  the  coloring  matter? 

Experiment  27  —  Bleaching  by  Bleaching  Powder 

Apparatus:  Porcelain  dish. 
Material:  Piece  of  calico. 
•  Reference:   Textiles,  page  148. 

1  Place  a  piece  of  sulphur  on  a  deflagrating  spoon  and  light  it  by 
placing  it  in  the  flame  and  allow  it  to  burn.  Cover  the  bottle  by 
means  of  a  glass  plate. 


296  EXPERIMENTS 

Directions 

Place  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  bleaching  powder  in  a  quart 
bottle  containing  a  pint  of  water.1  Then  place  a  piece  of  calico  in 
the  water  containing  the  bleaching  powder.  What  is  the  effect 
on  the  calico?  Then  remove  cloth  to  another  bottle  filled  with 
dilute  hydrochloric  or  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  What  is  the  effect 
on  the  color?  Then  wash  the  whitened  cloth  thoroughly  in 
water. 

Why  is  it  necessary  in  practice  to  pass  cotton  fabrics  through 
two  baths  in  bleaching?  What  is  contained  in  the  first  bath? 
in  the  second  bath? 

Experiment  30  —  Determining  Style  of  Weave 

Apparatus:  Pick  glass. 
Materials:  Different  fabrics. 
References:   Textiles,  pages  56-58,  etc. 

Examine  different  samples  of  cloth  and  classify  them  according 
to  the  seven  standards  given  on  pages  56-58,  etc. 

Experiment  31  —  Determining  the  Size  of  Yarn 

Apparatus:  Yard  stick. 

Materials:  Sample  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  worsted  yarns. 

References:   Textiles,  pages  49,  51,  52. 

As  yarns  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fabrics  are  of  all  degrees  of 
thickness,  it  became  necessary  to  adopt  some  method  of  measuring 
this  thickness.  For  this  purpose  yarns  are  numbered,  so  that 
when  the  number  is  known  an  idea  of  the  size  of  the  yarn  may 
be  gained.  It  would  seem  advisable  to  number  yarns  of  all  kinds 

Bleaching  powder  is  prepared  by  passing  chlorine  gas  over  layers 
of  slaked  lime  (lime  to  which  a  slight  amount  of  water  has  been  added). 
Bleaching  powder  bleaches  by  having  its  hypochlorous  acid  set  free, 
which  in  turn  gives  up  oxygen,  being  converted  into  hydrochloric  acid. 
The  French  use  solutions  containing  chloride  and  hypochlorite  of  soda. 
They  are  called  Labarraque's  disinfecting  fluid.  A  similar  solution  of  a 
mixture  of  chloride  and  hypochlorite  is  called  Eau  de  Javelle. 


EXPERIMENTS  297 

according  to  one  fixed  standard,  yet  unfortunately  this  is  not  done. 
The  methods  of  counting  yarns  are  many  and  varied.  The  usual 
method  is  to  estimate  the  yarn  number  by  taking  the  number  of 
hands  of  a  definite  length  which  make  up  some  given  weight. 
Thus  in  the  worsted  yarn,  No.  1  is  a  yarn  that  has  560  yards  to 
a  pound.  No.  2  worsted  yarn  has  two  times  560  yards  to  a 
pound.  How  many  yards  in  No.  12  worsted  yarn?  How  many 
yards  in  No.  20  cotton  yarn? 

Experiment  32  —  Test  for  Twist  in  Yarn 

Apparatus:  Test  dial. 
Material:  Piece  of  yarn. 
References:   Textiles,  pages  131-132. 

As  the  amount  of  twist  in  yarn  determines  its  strength,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  the  amount  of  twist  per  inch  in  given  yarn. 
The  strength  increases  up  to  a  certain  limit.  When  this  limit  is 
reached,  increased  twist  does  not  make  the  thread  any  stronger. 
We  may  also  have  twist  and  strength  at  the  expense  of  bulk. 
The  test  consists  in  finding  out  the  number  of  turns  per  inch,  and 
this  is  done  by  an  arrangement  where  a  certain  length  of  yarn  is 
stretched  between  two  points  on  a  twisting  machine  and  the  twist 
taken  out.  The  number  of  turns  required  to  take  the  twist  com- 
pletely out  are  registered  on  a  dial  at  the  side  of  the  apparatus. 

Poor  cotton  that  goes  into  coarse  goods  cannot  be  spun  as  fine 
as  the  finer  cotton.  The  shorter  the  cotton  the  more  twist  is 
required  to  spin  it,  and  the  more  twist  that  is  put  into  the.  yarn, 
the  less  will  be  the  yardage.  Whereas  on  the  finer  and  longer 
cotton  there  will  be  less  twist  put  into  it,  and  the  yarn  will  be 
much  stronger.  Find  the  twist  in  different  kinds  of  yarn. 

Experiment  33  —  Determining  the  Direction  of 
Warp  and  Filling 

Apparatus:  Microscope. 
Materials:  Silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  fabrics. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  238. 

When  one  examines  a  fabric  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  determine 
the  direction  of  the  warp  and  direction  of  the  filling. 


298  EXPERIMENTS 

Fabrics  with  Selvedge.  —  Examine  any  fabric  with  a  selvedge 
and  notice  that  the  warp  threads  run  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  length  (longest  side)  of  the  selvedge.  What  direction  will 
the  filling  threads  bear  to  the  selvedge? 

Fabrics  with  a  Nap.  —  Examine  a  piece  of  flannel  and  notice 
the  direction  of  the  nap.  Why  will  the  direction  of  the  nap  be 
the  same  as  the  direction  of  the  warp?  Remember  the  way  in 
which  the  fabric  enters  the  napping  machine. 

Fabrics  Containing  Double  Threads.  —  Examine  a  fabric  contain- 
ing double  and  single  threads  and  notice  that  the  warp  contains 
the  double  threads.  Why? 

Fabrics  Containing  Cotton  and  Woolen  Yarn.  —  Examine  a 
fabric  containing  cotton  and  woolen  threads  running  in  different 
directions  and  notice  that  the  cotton  threads  form  the  warp. 
Why? 

Another  way  to  tell  the  warp  threads  in  a  fabric  is  to  examine 
warp  and  filling  threads  very  closely  and  notice  which  set  contains 
the  greater  twist?  Why?  See  if  they  are  separated  at  more 
regular  intervals.  Why? 

Stiffened  or  Starched  Fabrics.  —  Examine  stiffened  or  starched 
goods  very  closely  and  notice  the  threads.  If  only  one  set  can  be 
seen  they  are  the  warp  threads.  The  stiffer  and  straighter 
threads  are  found  in  the  warp.  Why?  The  rough  and  crooked 
threads  are  seen  in  the  filling. 

Experiment  34  —  Determining  the  Density  of  a  Fabric 

Apparatus:  Pick  glass. 
Materials:  Samples  of  cloth. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  238. 

Directions 

1.  Examine  different  samples  of  cloth  and  determine  the  number 
of  filling  threads  and  warp  threads  by  means  of  a  pick  glass. 

2.  Then  examine  different  priced  fabrics  of  the  same  kind  and 
see  whether  the  low  or  high  priced  fabric  has  the  greater  density. 


EXPERIMENTS  299 

Experiment  35  —  Determining  Weight 

Apparatus:  Balances,  die. 
Materials:  4  square  inches  of  cloth. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  239. 

Directions 

1.  Fabrics  are  bought  and  sold  by  the  yard.     In  order  to  express 
the  amount  of  wool  or  cotton  in  a  fabric  the  weight  in  ounces  per 
yard  is  usually  given. 

2.  In  order  to  find  the  number  of  ounces  per  yard  a  piece  of  cloth 
of  definite  size,  usually  about  4  sq.  in.,  is  stamped  out  by  means  of 
a  die,  or  cut  by  means  of  a  tin  plate  exactly  4  sq.  in.  (2  in.  on  the 
side).     This  is  then  weighed  on  very  accurate  balances  and  ex- 
pressed in  grains.     Find  the  weight  per  yard.     Remember  7000 
grains  equal  1  lb.;    16  oz.  equal  1  Ib. 

Experiment  36  —  Determining  Shrinkage 
Apparatus:  Hot  water. 
Material:  Sample  of  woolen  fabric. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  239. 

Directions 

1.  Take  a  sample  of  a  woolen  fabric  12  in.  by  20  in.  and  pour 
hot  water  over  it  and  leave  it  immersed  over  night.     Then  dry  it 
in  the   morning  at  a  moderate  temperature  without  stretching. 
Then  measure  its  length  and  divide  the  difference  in  lengths  by 
the  original  length.     The  quotient  multiplied  by  100  will  give  the 
per  cent  of  shrinkage. 

2.  Repeat  the  same  experiment  with  a  worsted  fabric,  and  with 
a  cotton  fabric. 

3.  Why  does  the  woolen  fabric  shrink  more  than  the  worsted? 

Experiment  37  —  Test  of  Fastness  1  of  Color  under  Washing 

Apparatus:  Porcelain  dish,  soap  solution. 
Materials:  Cotton  and  woolen  fabrics. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  242. 

1A  description  of  shoe  and   hand   clothing   may  be  obtained  from 
Shoemaking  published  by  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston. 


300  EXPERIMENTS 

Directions 

1.  Colored  goods  and  printed  fabrics  should  withstand  the  action 
of  washing.     They  require  more  care  than  white  goods  and  should 
be  soaked  in  cold  water  containing  very  little  soap  and  no  soda. 
They  should  be  dried  in  the  shade  as  a  very  hot  sun  will  fade  them. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  dry  them  in  the  sun  be  sure  that  they  are 
dried  wrong  side  out,  as  direct   sunlight  fades  them  about  five 
times  as  much  as  reflected  light. 

2.  All  colored  fabrics  should  stand  mechanical  friction  as  well 
as  the  action  of  soap  liquor  and  the  temperature  of  the  washing 
operation.     In  order  to  test  the  fabric  for  fastness  a  piece  should 
be  placed  in  a  soap  solution  similar  to  that  used  in  the  ordi- 
nary household,  and  heated  to  131°  F.     The  treatment  should  be 
repeated  several  times. 

3.  If  the  color  fails  to  run  it  is  fast  to  washing. 

Questions 

1.  Why  should  more  care  be  exercised  in  washing  colored  goods 
than  white? 

2.  How  may  colored  fabrics  be  tested  to  show  that  they  stand 
the  action  of  soap  solution? 

3.  Does  a  moderately  warm  temperature   (131°  F)   affect  the 
fastness  of  colored  fabric? 

Experiment  38  —  Test  of  Fastness  of  Color  under  Friction 

Apparatus :  Yarn,  white  unstarched  cotton  fabric. 
Materials:  Fabrics  worn  near  the  skin. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  242. 

Directions 

Stockings,  hosiery  yarns,  corset  stuffs,  and  all  fabrics  intended 
to  be  worn  next  to  the  skin  must  be  closely  knitted  to  withstand 
friction  and  must  not  rub  off,  stain,  or  run,  that  is,  the  dyed 
materials  must  not  give  off  their  color  when  worn  next  to  the  human 
epidermis  (skin),  or  in  close  contact  with  other  articles  of  clothing, 
as  in  the  case  of  underwear. 

In  order  to  test  two  fabrics  to  see  which  is  the  better,  it  is  nee- 


EXPERIMENTS  301 

essary   to   rub   the   fabric   or   yarn   on   white   unstarched   cotton 
fabric. 

In  comparing  the  fastness  of  color  of  two  fabrics  it  is  necessary 
to  have  the  rubbing  equal  in  all  cases. 

Questions 

1.  What  is  meant  by  friction? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  expression  "fastness  of  color  of  two 
fabrics"? 

3.  How  may  the  fastness  of  a  colored  material  be  tested  to 
withstand  friction? 

Experiment  39    -  -  Test  of  Fastness  of  Color  against  Rain 

Apparatus:  Water,  undyed  yarn. 
Materials:  Silk  and  woolen  fabrics. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  243. 

Directions 

Silk  and  woolen  materials  for  umbrella  making,  raincoats,  etc., 
are  expected  to  be  rainproof.  These  fabrics  are  tested  by  plait- 
ing with  undyed  yarns  and  left  to  stand  all  night  in  water.  Notice 
whether  the  color  of  the  fabric  has  run  into  the  undyed  yarns. 

Take  a  sample  of  the  fabric  and  shake  some  drops  of  water  on 
it.  Notice  whether  it  loses  its  luster  when  the  drops  have  dried. 
Spotting  may  be  prevented  by  placing  a  damp  cloth  on  the  wrong 
side  of  the  material;  roll  the  two  together,  and  when  evenly  damp, 
unroll  and  press  through  the  damp  cloth  with  a  fairly  hot  iron. 

Place  a  piece  of  the  fabric  in  the  sun  so  that  the  sun  and  rain 
may  come  in  contact  with  it.  Notice  whether  it  loses  its  color 
and  becomes  gray  and  dull. 

Experiment  40  —  Test  of  Fastness  of  Color  in  Sunlight 

Apparatus:  Cardboard. 

Materials:  Silk,  woolen,  and  cotton  fabrics. 

Reference:  Textiles,  page  244. 


302  EXPERIMENTS 


Directions 

Cover  one  end  of  the  sample  of  cloth  with  a  piece  of  cardboard. 
Expose  the  fabric  to  the  sunlight  for  a  number  of  days  and  examine 
the  cloth  each  day  and  notice  whether  the  part  exposed  has 
changed  in  color  when  compared  with  the  part  covered.  Count 
the  number  of  days  it  has  taken  the  sunlight  to  change  the  color. 
Does  direct  sunlight  have  any  effect  upon  colored  fabrics?  Which 
is  the  most  affected  by  the  sun,  silk,  woolen,  or  cotton  fabrics, 
dyed  with  same  dyestuff,  in  the  same  length  of  time?  Are  fabrics 
changed  any  sooner  by  the  sun  than  by  the  weather? 

Experiment  41  —  Test  of  Fastness  of  Color  to  Weather, 
Light,  and  Air 

Materials:  Cotton,  silk,  and  woolen  fabrics. 
Reference:  Textiles,  page  244. 

Directions 

Examine  various  fabrics  for  fastness  to  weather,  light,  and  air 
by  placing  samples  outside  of  a  window  so  that  they  will  be  exposed 
to  the  weather,  light,  and  air.  Have  duplicate  samples  of  the  above 
away  from  the  weather  and  light.  Compare  the  samples  exposed 
to  the  weather  with  those  in  the  house  and  note  the  number  of 
days  it  takes  to  change.  Classify  the  fabrics.  Which  of  the 
fabrics  are  most  easily  affected  by  the  weather,  light,  and  air? 

Experiment  42  —  Test  of  Fastness  of  Color  against 
Street  Mud  and  Dust 

Apparatus:  Porcelain  dish,  lime,  and  water. 
Materials:  Cotton,  silk,  and  woolen  fabrics. 
Reference:  Textiles,  page  243. 

Ladies'  dress  goods  are  expected  to  withstand  the  action  of  mud 
and  dust.  In  order  to  test  a  fabric  for  the  resistance,  the  sample 
should  be  moistened  with  lime  and  water  (10  per  cent  solution), 
dried,  and  brushed.  Or  sprinkle  with  a  10  per  cent  solution  of 
soda,  drying,  brushing,  and  noting  any  change  in  the  color. 


EXPERIMENTS  303 

a.  Is  there  any  change  in  color  after  the  lime  water  has  been 
removed  from  the  cloth? 

b.  With  what  may  the  action  of  the  lime  water  or  soda  be 
compared? 

Experiment  43  —  Testing  Rubberized  Fabrics 

Materials:  Rubberized  fabrics. 

A  great  many  rubberized  fabrics  are  used  for  hospitals,  domestic 
purposes  and  for  clothing.  On  account  of  the  high  price  of  excel- 
lent rubberized  fabrics  a  great  many  substitutes  are  placed  on  the 
market  that  are  satisfactory  to  the  eye,  but  have  not  the  wearing 
qualities  for  the  service  they  are  intended  to  render. 

Strength  and  Resistance  to  Scratching.  —  In  order  to  test  a  rub- 
berized fabric  to  see  if  it  has  the  necessary  strength  to  stand 
everyday  use,  see  if  it  is  possible  to  scratch  it  with  the  finger  nail. 
Then  crease  it  and  crumple  it  between  the  hands.  Then  spread 
it  out  very  carefully  and  notice  whether  there  are  any  broken 
places.  If  there  are  it  should  be  rejected. 

Waterproof  Qualities.  —  A  rubberized  fabric  should  be  water- 
proof. A  sample  may  be  tested  by  forming  a  bag  with  it  and 
filling  it  with  water.  Crumple  the  bag  while  it  is  filled  with 
water.  Notice  whether  it  cracks  or  leaks. 

Examine  various  rubberized  fabrics  and  notice  whether  they 
are  substantial. 

Experiment  44  —  Test  for  Vegetable  and  Animal  Fiber 

Apparatus:  Acid,  fire. 

Materials :  Warp  and  filling  threads  of  cotton 

and  woolen  fabrics. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  239. 

Directions 

One  of  the  most  useful  tests  is  to  see  whether  an  article  is  made 
of  wool,  cotton,  or  silk,  and  if  a  composition  of  two  or  more  mate- 
rials, to  estimate  the  percentage  of  each.  Practical  experience 
can  teach  one  much  in  this  respect,  and  in  many  cases  inspection 
is  quite  insufficient.  A  more  reliable  test  is  to  burn  a  piece  of 
material  and  notice  how  it  burns. 


304  EXPERIMENTS 

Take  a  sample  of  a  woolen  and  cotton  fabric;  separate  the 
warp  and  filling  and  untwist  one  piece  of  warp  and  one  piece  of 
filling  yarn.  Burn  a  piece  of  untwisted  yarn  and  notice  whether 
it  burns  slowly  and  curls  up  into  a  black  crisp  cinder  leaving  a  dis- 
agreeable smell,  or  burns  with  a  flash  leaving  a  light  ash  behind. 

Questions 

1.  Describe  the   burning  process. 

2.  What  is  the  burning  test  for  vegetable  fiber? 

3.  What  is  the  burning  test  for  animal  fiber? 

Repeat  the  same  experiment,  placing  the  untwisted  yarn  in  sul- 
phuric acid.  Apply  heat  and  note  the  effect. 

What  is  the  acid  test  for  vegetable  fiber? 

What  is  the  acid  test  for  animal  fiber? 

Examine  different  fabrics  to  see  whether  they  contain  vegetable 
or  animal  fibers. 

Experiment  45  —  Difference  between  Cotton  and  Linen  Fabrics 

Examine  a  real  linen  towel  and  a  cotton  towel.  Wet  your  hands 
and  use  both  towels  to  dry  them.  Notice  which  of  the  fabrics 
absorbs  the  moisture  quicker,  or  which  towel  dries  the  hands  better. 

Compare  a  cotton  table-cloth  and  a  linen  table-cloth.  Notice 
that  the  linen  fabric  has  a  natural  gloss,  a  cool,  smooth  feel,  and 
launders  much  better  than  cotton.  The  cotton  fabric  on  the  other 
hand  gives  off  a  fuzz,  and  irons  dull  and  shapeless.1 

Linen  is  tough  and  strong,  cool  feeling,  and  has  a  long  fiber. 
Linen  cannot  be  given  a  cotton  fabric  finish.2 

*In  Ireland  the  cost  of  producing  a  pound  of  bleached  linen  cloth  4 
sq.  yd.  is  16d.  or  32  cts.;  cost  of  hackling  a  pound  of  flax  is  }d.  or  1  ct. 
per  lb.;  cost  of  preparing  and  spinning  a  pound  of  flax  is  Qd.  or  12  cts. 
per  lb.;  cost  of  winding  and  weaving  a  pound  of  flax  is  2\d.  or  5  cts.  per 
lb.;  cost  of  bleaching  and  finishing  a  pound  of  flax  is  Id.  or  14  cts.  per 
lb.;  $75  is  spent  in  turning  $100  worth  of  flax  into  yarn;  $75  is  spent  in 
turning  $100  worth  of  yarn  into  brown  linen;  $50  is  spent  in  turning 
$100  worth  of  brown  linen  into  linen  for  market. 

2  A  linen  fabric  can  be  best  told  from  cotton  by  holding  it  up  to  the 
light  and  examining  the  evenness  of  the  threads.  Cotton  can  be  more 


EXPERIMENTS  305 

Cotton  on  the  other  hand  has  a  weak,  short  fiber,  dull,  warm, 
and  non-absorbent.  After  washing,  cotton  resembles  a  limp  rag 
while  linen  retains  firmness  and  stiffness. 

Which  fabric  absorbs  the  moisture  more  readily? 

What  is  the  difference  in  appearance  between  the  two  fabrics? 
Between  the  fibers  of  the  fabrics? 


Experiment  46  —  Test  to  Distinguish  Artificial  Silk  from  Silk 

Apparatus:  Porcelain  dish,  potassium  hydrate. 
Material:  Piece  of  silk  fabric. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  240. 

Since  silk  fabrics,  particularly  hosiery,  are  becoming  popular, 
various  attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  substitutes  for  real 
silk.  To  test  a  silk  fabric,  boil  the  sample  in  4  per  cent  potas- 
sium hydrate  solution  and  note  the  effect.  If  it  produces  a  yellow 
solution  it  is  artificial  silk,  if  colorless  it  is  pure  silk. 

Another  simple  way  used  by  some  workmen,  although  un- 
hygienic, is  to  unravel  a  few  threads  of  the  suspected  fabric, 
place  them  in  the  mouth,  and  masticate  them  vigorously. 
Artificial  silk  will  soften  under  the  operation  and  break  up 
into  a  mass  of  pulp.  Natural  silk  will  retain  its  fibrous  strength. 

Test  various  samples  of  cheap  "silk"  hosiery. 

Experiment  47  —  Test  to  Distinguish  Silk  from  Wool 

Apparatus:  Porcelain  dish,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Material:  Silk  or  woolen  fabric. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  240. 

easily  spun  level  than  flax,  therefore  threads  that  present  considerable 
irregularities  may  be  taken  to  be  flax.  In  a  union  fabric  the  nap  is 
usually  cotton  and  the  threads  more  regular  than  the  filling  (flax).  The 
best  linen  is  made  from  fine  and  fairly  regular  threads;  common  linen 
from  coarse  and  irregular  tow  yarns.  Linen  is  no  more  subject  to  weak 
places  in  weaving  than  cotton,  although  it  is  harder  to  bleach  and  may 
be  weakened  in  this  process.  If  each  operation  is  not  perfect  the  linen 
will  become  yellow  in  storage. 


306  EXPERIMENTS 

Silk  may  be  distinguished  from  wool  by  putting  the  suspected 
thread  or  fabric  into  cold  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid.  If  silk 
is  present  it  will  dissolve,  while  wool  merely  swells. 

Test  various  samples  of  silk  and  wool. 

Experiment  48  —  Test  to  Distinguish  Cotton  from  Linen 

Apparatus:  Fuchsine,  ammonia. 
Materials:  Cotton  and  linen  fabrics. 
Reference:   Textiles,  page  240. 

Directions 

1.  On  account  of  the  high  price  of  linen  various  attempts  are 
made  to  pass  cotton  off  for  linen.     While  it  is  possible  sometimes 
to  detect  cotton  by  rolling  the  suspected  fabric  between  the  thumb 
and  finger,  the  better  way  is  to  stain  the  fabric  with  fuchsine.      If 
the  fibers  of  the  fabric  turn  red,  and  this  coloration  disappears 
upon  the  addition  of  ammonia,  they  are  cotton;  if  the  red  color 
remains,  the  fibers  are  linen.      The  most  reliable  test  is  to  examine 
the  fiber  under  the  microscope  and  note  the  difference  in  structure. 

2.  Test  a  cheap  linen  fabric  for  cotton. 

3.  When  cotton  yarn  is  used  to  adulterate  linen  it  becomes  fuzzy 
through  wear,  and  when  used  to  adulterate  other  fabrics,  it  wears 
shabby  and  loses  its  brightness.     Linen  is  a  heavier  fabric,  and 
wrinkles  much  more  readily  than  cotton.     It  wears  better,  and 
has  an  exquisite  freshness  that  is  not  found  in  cotton  fabrics. 

4.  Describe  a  chemical  test  for  linen. 

5.  What  is  the  difference  in  appearance  and  wearing  qualities 
of  cotton  and  linen? 

Experiment  49  —  Test  of  Fabric  to  Withstand 
Ironing  and  Pressing 

Apparatus:  Hot  iron. 

Materials:  Silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  fabrics. 

Directions 

Place  the  sample  over  an  ironing  board  and  iron  it  with  hot 
iron  (about  200°  F).  Compare  the  sample  immediately  with  one 


EXPERIMENTS  307 

not  ironed.  Remember  that  many  colors,  particularly  colored  silks, 
change  while  they  are  hot.  If  the  original  shade  returns  when  the 
fabric  has  cooled,  then  the  fabric  is  fast  to  ironing  and  pressing. 


1.  What  is  the  object  of  ironing  and  pressing  clothes? 

2.  Is  it  a  good  plan  to  press  clothes  often? 

3.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  effect  of  the  hot  iron  on  the 
three  kinds  of  fabrics? 

Experiment  50  —  Test  of  Fabric  to  Withstand  Perspiration 

Apparatus:  Porcelain  dish. 

Materials:  Silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  fabrics. 

Reference:   Textiles,  page  243. 

Directions 

1.  In  addition  to  withstanding  the  action  of  coming  in  contact 
with  the  human  skin,  fabrics  like  hosiery,  etc.,  should  withstand 
the  excretions  of  the  body. 

2.  To  test  a  fabric  for  resistance,  place  the  sample  in  a  bath  of 
dilute  acid  made  by  adding  one  teaspoonful  of  acetic  acid  to  a 
quart  of  water  warmed  to  the  temperature  of  the  body,  98.6°  F. 
The  fabric  should  be  dipped  a  number  of  times,  and  then  dried, 
without  rinsing,  between  parchment  paper. 

Questions 

1.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  acid  solution  upon  the  fabrics? 

2.  Would  they  necessarily  withstand  the  effect  of  perspiration, 
even  if  they  did  withstand  the  acetic  acid  solution?     Why? 

Experiment  51  —  Test  for  Determining  Dressing 
Apparatus:  Magnifying  glass,  porcelain  dish. 
Materials:  Various  fabrics. 
Reference:    Textiles,  page  242. 

Directions 

1.  A  great  many  cotton  fabrics  such  as  muslin  often  contain 
considerable    sizing    or    dressing.     In  order  to   examine   a  fabric 


308  EXPERIMENTS 

and  determine  whether  too  much  dressing  has  been  used,  take  a 
small  sample  of  the  fabric  and  crush  it  in  the  hand  and  rub  it 
together,  so  that  the  dressing  is  removed  and  the  quantity  em- 
ployed may  be  determined.  If  much  dressing  has  been  used,  dust 
will  be  produced  in  rubbing.  Prick  the  surface  with  your  ringer 
nail.  Notice  whether  the  starch  comes  off.  Then  wet  your  ringer 
and  rub  it  on  the  cloth  and  allow  it  to  dry.  Does  the  gloss  disappear  ? 

2.  Another  method  is  to  hold  the  sample  before  the  light  and 
notice   whether   you   can   recognize   the   dressing.     Examine   the 
sample  with  a  magnifying  glass  (or  pick  glass)  and  notice  whether 
the  dressing  is  superficial  or  penetrates  the  substance  of  the  fabric. 

3.  Would  you  buy  low  priced  cotton  goods  with  a  thick  gloss 
and  pasty  look? 

4.  Notice    the    effect    (lusterless)   of   fabrics    containing    much 
dressing  after  washing. 

5.  A  very  simple  way  for  telling  the  amount  of  loading  or  weight- 
ing in  a  cotton  fabric  is  to  weigh  a  given  sample,  then  "boil  the 
fabric  out  in  hot  water,"    -  boiling  for  several  hours  and  then  dry- 
ing it.     The  difference  in  weight  after  drying  and  before  boiling 
gives  the  weight  of  sizing  material  per  sample  piece. 

6.  If  mineral  loading  has  been  used  to  a  great  extent,  a  large 
residue  is  left  after  burning. 

Experiment  52  —  Testing  the  Strength  of  Cloth 

Apparatus:  Dynamometer. 
Materials:  Various  fabrics. 
Reference:  Textiles,. page  237. 

Directions 

1.  An  excellent  way  to  test  the  strength  of  a  fabric  is  to  place 
the  two  thumbs  together  and  press  them  down  on  the  sample,  hold- 
ing it  tight  underneath.     Then  try  to  break  the  threads,  first  in 
one  direction  and  then  in  the  other.     Do  they  break  easily?     Notice 
whether  one  set  is  very  much  stronger  than  the  other. 

2.  Manufacturers  usually  test  yarn  and  fabrics  by  means  of  an 
instrument  called  a  dynamometer.     In  this  way  one  can  find  out 
whether  a  yarn  or  fabric  comes  up  to  the  necessary  strength,  and 


EXPERIMENTS  309 

whether  it  has  the  required  yield  or  stretch.  Both  these  points  are 
of  importance  in  practical  work,  for  it  is  essential  that  the  yarn 
as  shown  should  at  least  be  strong  enough  to  bear  the  strain  of 
manufacture.  The  test  is  made  by  stretching  a  hank  of  yarn 
between  the  two  hooks  of  a  cloth  testing  machine.  The  handle  at 
the  side  is  now  turned,  so  that  the  lower  hook  descends  and  puts 
a  strain  on  the  hank.  This  strain  is  increased,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  pointer  moves  around  the  dial,  which  indicates  in  pounds 
the  amount  of  strain.  When  the  threads  of  the  hank  begin  to 
break,  the  strain  is  released,  and  the  catch  at  the  side  keeps  the 
pointer  in  position  until  the  amount  of  strain  is  read  on  the  dial. 
The  distance  stretched  by  the  yarn  before  breakage  occurs  is 
shown  in  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch,  in  the  small  indicator 
arranged  near  the  upper  hook. 
Test  different  fabrics  and  yarns. 

Experiment  53  —  Characteristics  of  a  Knitted  Fabric 

Apparatus:  Pick  glass. 

Materials:  Knitted  fabric,  woven  fabric. 

Reference:   Textiles,  page  153. 

Directions 

1.  Examine  a  piece  of  knitted  fabric  under  the  pick  glass  and 
notice  the  construction.     How  does  it  differ  from  weaving?     The 
single  thread  is  formed  into  rows  of  loops  which  hang  upon  each 
other,  thus  giving  the  knitted  fabric  its  characteristic  springiness. 
Why  is  hosiery  suitable  for  underwear?     Try  to  obtain  the  thread 
of  the  knitted  fabric  and  reduce  the  whole  to  a  heap  of  yarn  by 
cutting  it.     Is  the  yarn  intact? 

2.  A  knitted  fabric  may  be  told  from  a  woven  fabric  by  study- 
ing the  following  sketch.     (See  page  310.) 

Note  that  the  element  of  stretch  or  elasticity  is  wholly  lacking 
in  the  woven  cloth  except  what  lengthwise  elasticity  may  be  in 
the  threads  themselves.  On  the  other  hand,  referring  to  the 
printed  diagram  of  the  knitted  fabric  it  will  just  as  readily  be  seen 
that  its  very  structure  implies  such  a  corrugation  of  its  individual 
loops  that  if  distended  by  force  in  any  direction  its  tendency  is  to 
return  to  the  normal. 


310 


EXPERIMENTS 


The  essential  characteristics  of  good  hose  are: 

1.  That  they  should  be  without  seams. 

2.  That  they  should  be  so  knit  as  to  conform  to  the  foot  of 
the  wearer. 

3.  That  they  should  be  thickened  or  reinforced  where  the  great- 
est wear  comes. 

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ORDINARY   WEAVING 
a.  Weft,        b.  Warp. 


PLAIN  STOCKING  FABRIC 

The  essential  characteristics  of  good  underwear  are: 

1.  It  should  be  made  from  elastic  cloth,  which  implies  a  knitted 
cloth. 

2.  It  should  be  porous  in  a  high  degree  —  whether  in  winter 
weight  or  summer  weight. 

3.  The  seams  should  be  made  upon  the  most  modern  sewing 
machines,  with  as  little  bulk  as  possible. 

Experiment  54  —  Experiment  to  Illustrate  Imperfections 
in  Hosiery 

Apparatus:  Magnifying  glass. 
Materials:  Hosiery  (seconds). 
Reference:  Textiles,  page  159. 


EXPERIMENTS  311 

Examine  a  piece  of  hosiery  called  a  second,  obtained  from  a 
hosiery  mill,  and  notice  whether  any  of  the  following  defects  are 
present: 

a.  Yarn  contains  thick  bits  and  buns. 

6.  Knots  are  badly  tied. 

c.  Discolored  yarn. 

d.  Lacks  solidity  and  firmness,  due  to  the  gauge  being  too 

coarse  for  the  yarn. 

e.  Full  work-yarn  too  thick  for  gauge. 

Experiment  55  —  Characteristics  of  a  Crochet  Fabric 

Apparatus:  Crochet  needle. 
Material:  Thread. 

Directions 

1.  Crocheting  is   another   method,   like  knitting,   of   making  a 
fabric.     Examine  the  operation  of  crocheting.     Notice  that  only 
one  thread  is  made  use  of,  and  is  formed  into  loops  by  means  of  a 
large  needle  with  a  hook  at  the  end.     The  chief  point  is  that  the 
loops  are  not  formed  in  uniform  rows,  but  one  loop  at  a  time,  and 
with  the  greatest  liberty  to  choose  any  part  of  the  article  already 
made  to  form  a  new  loop.     For  this  reason,  crocheting  adapts 
itself  to  the  production  of  fancy  patterns  useful  for  ornamenting. 

2.  A  knitted  fabric  can  be  told  from  a  crocheted  fabric  by  noting 
that  a  knitted  fabric  is  composed  of  rows  or  ranks  of  loops  of  a 
single  yarn  which  interlock  successively  with  similar  rows  or  ranks 
of  loops,  while  a  crocheted  fabric  consists  of  a  structure  the  basis  of 
which  is  a  thread  crocheted  or  knitted  into  a  chain  which  is  attached 
at  intervals  to  itself. 

Experiment  56  —  Characteristics  of  a  Good  Piece  of 
Cotton  Cloth 

Materials:  Different  samples  of  cotton  fabrics. 
Reference:   Textiles,  pages  151-152. 

Directions 

1.  Examine  different  kinds  of  cotton  fabrics.  Compare  the 
lowest,  medium,  and  highest  priced  varieties  of  the  same  fabric. 


•312  EXPERIMENTS 

Notice  how  quickly  the  finish  of  a  low  priced  cotton  fabric  with  a 
thick  gloss  loses  its  luster  after  washing. 

2.  Examine  the  different  grades  of  the  following  fabrics:  white 
lawn,  Indian  Head  cotton  suiting,  muslin,  lawn,  and  cambric. 
Wash  the  samples  several  times. 

Does  it  pay  to  buy  cheap  cotton  fabrics  for  underwear,  etc.? 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  piece  of  cotton  cloth? 

Experiment  57  —  Characteristics  of  a  Good  Piece  of 
Woolen  Cloth 

Materials:  Different  samples  of  woolens. 
Reference:   Textiles,  pages  71-82. 

Directions 

1.  Woolens    differ    from   worsteds    in    having   a   more   or   less 
covered  face,  with  the  result  that  the  weave  rarely  is  noticeable, 
and  the  general  color  effects  are  much  smoother  and  softer  than 
those  of  worsteds. 

2.  Examine  different  grades  of  woolen  fabrics,  such  as  serges. 
Defects.  —  If  a  piece  of  woolen  is  not  constructed  right  from 

the  start  or  if  the  work  is  not  properly  finished,  that  is,  enough 
fulled  in  width  or  length,  it  is  liable  to  be  raggy  or  slazy.  As  a 
great  many  fabrics  are  more  or  less  teaseled,  there  is  a  possibility 
of  such  pieces  becoming  too  woolly  and  too  hairy. 

Experiment  58  —  Characteristics  of  a  Good  Piece  of 
Worsted  Cloth 

Materials:  Different  kinds  of  worsted  fabrics. 
Reference:   Textiles,  pages  71-82. 

Directions 

1.  A  good  piece  of  worsted  fabric  should  have  a  clear  outline  of 
the  pattern,  perfection  of  weave  lines,   and  when  the  fabric  is 
exposed  to  light  should  show  a  luster  without  polish. 

2.  Examine  different  types  of  worsted  fabrics,  and  notice  how 
many  conform  to  the  above  requirements. 

3.  The  most  essential  point  of  worsted  is  that  it  should  have  a  clean 


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314  EXPERIMENTS 

General  weight  of  fabric  for  men's  wear,  12  to  14  oz.  per  yd.,  56  in. ; 
general  weight  of  fabric  for  ladies'  wear,  8  to  12  oz.  per  yd.,  54  in. 

4.  As  a  rule,  when  one  speaks  of  a  suiting,  you  expect  to  see 
a  fancy  effect,  in  the  form  of  a  fancy  stripe,  check,  or  a  colored 
mixture,  in  loud  or  quiet  tones  of  decoration.  Long  naps  in 
fancy  effects  are  sometimes  fashionable,  and  at  other  times  the 
cloth  finish  is  popular. 

This  class  may  be  subdivided  into 

1.  Light  weight  for  spring  or  fall. 

2,  Heavy  weight  for  winter. 

The  light  weight  class  generally  consists  of  covert  cloths  in 
lighter  colors  for  spring,  and  cloths  usually  of  the  undressed  finish 
from  worsted  or  woolen  stock  for  fall. 

The  heavy  weight  class  generally  consists  of  heavily  fulled  goods, 
such  as  meltons,  beavers,  naps,  etc.,  which  give  a  heavier  and 
warmer  coat  for  winter  use  only,  and  where  an  exceptionally  heavy 
coat  is  required,  double  and  treble  cloths  are  occasionally  employed. 

Examine  different  kinds  of  suitings  and  classify  them. 

TROUSERINGS.  —  Trouserings  are  more  firmly  woven  than  suitings 
and  a're  heavier.  They  invariably  have  a  stripe.  The  ground 
shade  of  the  better  grade  of  men's  wear  fabrics  is  generally  com- 
posed of  twist  warp  yarns,  ranging  from  dark  slate  gray  to  light 
lavender  gray.  An  endless  variety  of  broad  and  narrow  fine  line 
effects  is  produced  by  expert  manipulation  and  combination  of 
weave  and  silk  decorations,  producing  the  pleasing  effect  required 
for  this  class  of  goods.  The  filling  is  nearly  always  black;  but 
sometimes  a  dark  slate  is  used. 

The  cheaper  grades  are  generally  made  of  wool  and  cotton  mix- 
tures and  twists,  down  to  all  cotton,  in  imitation  of  the  better 
grades. 

OVERCOATINGS.  —  Overcoatings  are  heavy  woolen  or  worsted 
fabrics  and  heavily  teaseled  or  gigged,  giving  a  rough,  hairy  appear- 
ance. Whether  thick  or  thin,  coarse  or  fine,  they  should  always  be 
elastic  fabrics,  that  is,  as  much  so  as  well  fulled  woolen  goods 
can  be.  When  hard  or  stiff  they  never  make  a  graceful  garment. 
The  special  goods  made  for  overcoats  are  nearly  all  soft  goods. 

Examine  different  fabrics  and  classify  them  into  either  suitings, 
overcoatings,  trouserings,  etc. 


EXPERIMENTS  315 

Experiment  59  —  Characteristics  of  a  Good  Silk  Fabric 

Materials:   Samples  of  different  cheap  silk  fabrics. 
Reference:   Textiles,  pages  203-218. 

There  are  cheap  and  expensive  silk  fabrics  on  the  market.  The 
consumer  is  often  tempted  to  buy  the  cheaper  fabric  and  wonders 
why  there  is  such  a  difference  in  price.  The  difference  in  price  is 
due  to  the  cost  of 'raw  material  and  additional  cost  is  due  to  the 
care  in  manufacturing.  For  example,  raw  silk  costs  from  $1.35 
to  $5  a  pound  according  to  its  nature,  quality,  and  the  country 
from  which  it  comes.  The  cost  of  throwing  silks  preparatory  to 
dyeing  also  varies,  the  average  being  55  cents  a  pound  for  organ- 
zine  or  warp,  and  33  cents  a  pound  for  tram  and  filling.  The 
prices  here  also  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  twist  im- 
parted to  the  silk,  which  is  regulated  by  the  kind  of  cloth  it  is 
to  enter  into.  The  cost  of  dyeing  varies  from  55  cents  a  pound 
upwards  to  perhaps  $1.50  a  pound,  according  to  the  dye  and  the 
treatment  which  the  silk  is  to  receive  in  the  process  of  dyeing. 
The  cost  of  winding,  quilling,  and  sundry  labor  items  necessary 
with  soft  silk  prior  to  its  being  woven,  will  perhaps  average  about 
a  cent  per  yard  of  woven  goods  for  the  cheapest  cloths  and  range 
upwards  according  to  the  grade  of  the  fabric.  The  cost  of  weav- 
ing also  varies  with  the  cloth,  and  may  be  9  cents  for  one  fabric 
and  25  cents  or  more  per  yard  for  the  more  expensive. 

Weavers  are  paid  from  2  cents  to  60  cents  per  yard  for 
weaving  the  different  fabrics,  and  other  operations  vary  greatly 
in  cost;  for  instance,  the  cost  of  printing  is  entirely  dependent 
upon  the  work  and  the  number  of  colors  used,  whether  it  is  blotch 
printing,  discharge  work,  or  block  printing.  Different  processes 
in  finishing  have  widely  varied  costs.  At  the  present  time  moire 
work  is  done  which  costs  as  high  as  25  cents  per  yard.  There  are 
also  other  materials  which  can  be  finished  for  as  little  as  ^  cent  per 
yard.  Some  goods  have  to  be  finished  over  and  over  again  in  the 
dyeing  and  finishing  while  others  are  very  simply  done.  Many 
printed  goods  are  handled  150  times  after  they  come  from  the 
loom. 

When  it  comes  to  relative  values  of  similar  goods  produced  by 
different  manufacturers  there  are  a  few  general  principles  by  which 


316  EXPERIMENTS 

good  construction  can  easily  be  determined.  Most  pure  dye 
fabrics  when  burned  will  rather  shrivel  and  boil  than  burn,  while 
those  which  are  weighted  heavily  with  metallic  salts  will  simply 
char  and  turn  white  without  losing  the  structure  of  the  fabric. 

A  fabric  in  which  the  quantity  of  warp  and  rilling  are  of  equal 
weight  gives  the  maximum  str.ength  for  the  amount  of  material 
used.  For  the  same  weight  and  material,  that  having  the  most 
bindings  of  warp  and  filling  will  give  the  greater  service.  Fabrics 
with  an  insufficient  number  of  warp  or  filling  threads  slide  easily 
and  do  not  give  good  service,  though  sometimes  fashionable.  A 
fabric  having  a  twist  in  the  warp  and  filling  will  last  longer  than 
one  using  the  same  amount  of  silk  and  the  same  binding  with 
less  twist. 

All  of  these  things  may  be  taught  to  women  many  times  over, 
but  if  the  fashion  demands  an  article  which  breaks  all  of  the 
above  laws  and  is  everything  that  it  should  not  be,  they  will 
buy  it  in  preference  to  a  serviceable  fabric.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
consumer  will  be  safest  in  buying  goods  produced  by  houses 
of  good  reputation  and  whose  products  are  well  known. 

A  large  part  of  the  retail  value  of  silk  goods  is  their  fashion 
demand  and  is  quite  independent  of  their  cost  of  production. 
For  instance,  at  the  present  time  crepe  fabrics,  brocades,  and  prints 
are  commanding  a  premium  while  such  goods  as  plain  taffetas 
could  not  be  sold  for  the  cost  of  production. 

The  advantages  of  the  better  kinds  of  silks  over  the  cheap  ones 
are  pure  dye,  long  wear,  and  more  expensive  manufacturing. 

Experiment  60  —  How  to  Determine  the  Count  of 
Yarn  in  Cloth 

Material:  Samples  of  fabrics. 
Apparatus:  Scales,  ruler. 
Reference:   Textiles,  pages  144-146. 

The  United  States  .Government  imposes  a  tax  on  certain  im- 
ported fabrics  and  yarn.  In  the  case  of  cotton,  the  rates  of  duty 
are  to  be  ascertained  according  to  the  average  number  of  the  yarns 
in  the  condition  in  which  it  is  imported. 

The  length  of  the  yarn  is  to  be  counted  as  equal  to  the  distance 


EXPERIMENTS  317 

covered  by  it  in  the  cloth,  all  clipped  threads  to  be  measured  as  if 
continuous  and  all  ply  yarns  to  be  separated  into  singles  and  the 
count  taken  of  the  total  singles;  any  excessive  sizing  is  to  be 
removed  by  boiling  or  other  suitable  processes.  The  number  of 
the  yarn  is  the  English  number  of  840  yd.  to  a  Ib.  for  a  No.  1  yarn. 

The  average  number  of  yarn  may  be  found  without  unraveling 
the  fabric,  and  is  the  quotient  of  the  total  thread  length,  by  the 
weight  in  the  proportion  of  840  yd.  of  yarn  equaling  8^  grains, 
which  is  equivalent  to  a  No.  1  yarn. 

The  following  simple  formula  may  be  used: 

Multiply  the  count  of  threads  per  square  inch  by  the  number 
of  square  inches  in  the  sample  used,  this  product  to  be  multiplied 
by  100;  then  divide  the  product  thus  obtained  by  the  weight  of 
the  sample  in  grains  multiplied  by  432.  The  quotient  will  give 
the  number  of  the  yarn. 

For  example,  take  a  sample  of  cotton  cloth  4  in.  square,  which 
equals  16  sq.  in.,  having  28  warp  and  28  woof  threads,  a  total  of 
56  threads  to  the  square  inch,  and  weighing  8.6  grains.  The 
formula  applied  would  be  as  follows: 

56  x  16  x  100  -T-  8.6  x  432  =  24,  the  number  of  the  yarn. 

The  formula  may  be  further  simplified  by  weighing  a  square 
yard  of  the  cloth  and  dividing  the  number  of  threads  per  square 
inch  by  3^  of  the  weight  per  square  yard  in  grains. 

Find  the  number  of  yarn  in  several  cotton  fabrics? 

Experiment  61  —  Study  of  Fabrics 

A  great  deal  of  time  should  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  standard 
fabrics  so  that  pupils  may  be  able  to  recognize  them  by  inspection 
and  know  how  to  test  them  for  adulterants. 

This  may  be  done  by  having  the  pupils  study  the  fabrics  one 
by  one,  placing  a  sample  of  each  in  a  note-book.  Underneath 
the  sample  should  be  written  the  use  of  the  fabric,  the  width, 
the  different  grades,  with  prices,  wearing  qualities,  and  how  the 
fabric  is  made.  In  connection  with  this  work  special  effort 
should  be  made  to  develop  a  textile  vocabulary  so  as  to  be 
able  to  discriminate  between  the  different  fabrics,  to  know  the 
types  of  weaves,  and  the  different  kinds  of  finish,  etc.  In  this 


318  EXPERIMENTS 

way  develop  the  ability  to  know  what  materials  and  colors  weave 
best,  the  prices  which  should  be  paid  for  strong  materials,  the 
amount  of  material  necessary,  and  the  trade  names  of  fabrics 
which  can  be  depended  upon  for  substantial  goods. 

Occasional  tests  in  recognizing  fabrics  should  be  given  by  the 
teacher  by  placing  before  the  pupils  unlabeled  fabrics  that 
they  have  previously  studied  and  have  them  give  the  name, 
approximate  price  or  grade,  weave,  qualities,  etc. 

Remnants  or  small  pieces  of  standard  fabrics  may  be  obtained 
from  the  leading  dry  goods  stores  of  the  country.  Teachers  should 
have  on  exhibition  in  cabinets  a  large  display  of  standard  fabrics 
with  a  card  attached  giving  the  name  and  use  of  each. 

Experiment  62  —  How  to  Examine  a  Fabric 

The  first  thing  a  buyer  of  cloth  notices  in  examining  the  fabrics 
is  the  finish.  The  finish  is  tested  by  feeling  and  seeing.  To 
illustrate:  broadcloth  should  have  a  smooth  face  and  a  nap 
evenly  laid.  If  the  finish  is  in  keeping  with  the  character  of  the 
cloth,  he  next  examines  the  fiber  of  the  yarn  to  see  whether  it  is 
composed  of  pure  wool  or  two  or  more  fibers  in  combination. 

Then  test  the  strength  of  the  cloth  to  see  if  it  will  meet  the 
requirements. 

A  test  should  be  made  to  tell  whether  it  is  poorly  dyed  or  well 
dyed.  There  is  no  test  that  can  be  applied  to  all  colors  to  ascer- 
tain this,  neither  is  it  possible  to  judge  by  the  eye.  The  best  way 
is  to  take  a  small  sample  of  the  goods  and  submit  it  to  the  wash- 
ing and  light  test. 


SOURCES   OF   SUPPLY 

The  author  has  found  that  very  nearly  all  manufacturers  are 
willing  to  supply  schools  with  samples  of  their  products.  But  the 
demand  for  samples  has  been  so  great  that  it  is  necessary  in  most 
cases  to  pay  a  small  sum  to  cover  the  cost. 

The  following  prominent  firms  dealing  in  textile  supplies  are 
named  here  to  assist  the  teachers  in  writing  for  supplies. 

The  names  of  the  leading  textile  papers  are  given  so  that  teachers 
may  obtain  them.  They  contain  a  large  number  of  names  of  dealers 
in  textiles  so  that  they  may  be  used  as  reference  books  for  supplies. 

Catalogues  of  Cotton  Machinery 

Kitson  Machine  Shop,  Lowell,  Mass.  —  Cotton  pickers. 

Howard  and  Bullough,  Pawtucket,  R.  I.  —  Cotton  machinery. 

Saco-Pettee  Machine  Shop,  Saco,  Me.  —  Cotton  machinery. 

Lowell  Machine  Shop,  Lowell,  Mass.  —  Cotton  machinery. 

Whitin  Machine  Works,  Whitinsville,  Mass.  — Cotton  machinery. 

Mason  Machine  Works,  Taunton,  Mass.  —  Cotton  machinery. 

Draper  Co.,  Hopedale,  Mass.  —  Cotton  machinery. 

Woonsocket  Machine  Works,  Woonsocket,  R.  I.  —  Cotton 
machinery. 

Faler  &  Jencks,  Pawtucket,  R.  I.  —  Cotton  machinery. 

Potter  &  Johnson,  Pawtucket,  R.  I.  —  Cotton  machinery. 

C.  E.  Riley,  65  Franklin  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Cotton  machinery. 

Cohoes  Iron  Foundry  Co.,  Cohoes,  N.  Y.  —  Cotton  machinery. 

American  Moistening  Co.,  120  Franklin  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  — 
Humidifiers  and  textile  machinery. 

Standard  Textile  Papers 

American  Wool  and  Cotton  Reporter,  Atlantic  Ave.,  Boston, 
Mass. 

American  Silk  Journal,  East  28th  St.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 

319 


320  EXPERIMENTS 

Textile  World  Record,  Congress  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Technical  Education  Bulletin  on  Illustrative  and  Laboratory 
Supplies,  published  by  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
West  120th  St.,  New  York. 

Fibre  and  Fabric,  127  Federal  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Textile  Manufacturers  Journal,  Atlantic  Ave.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Wool,  Cotton,  and  Silk  Samples 

American  Woolen  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. — Booklets  on  From  Wool 
to  Cloth;  samples  of  fabrics. 

Arlington  Mills,  Chauncey  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Samples  of 
cotton  and  wool  in  different  stages  of  manufacture;  fabrics. 

S.  Blaisdell,  Jr.,  Chicopee,  Mass.  —  Egyptian  and  Peruvian 
cotton,  etc. 

Frank  A.  Tierney,  260  Broadway,  New  York  —  Ramie. 

Geo.  Carter,  246  Broadway,  New  York  —  Linen  yarns  and  thread. 

Boston  Yarn  Co.,  50  State  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Cotton  yarn. 

Wonalancit  Co.,  Nashua,  N.  H.  —  Samples  of  cotton. 

Botany  Worsted  Mills,  Passaic,  N.  J.  —  French  spun  worsted  yarn. 

C.  E.  Riley,  65  Franklin  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Yarns  and  fabrics. 

Adirondack  Wool  Co.,  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.  —  Wools  and  shoddies. 

Sutcliffe,  Atlantic  Ave.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Foreign  wools. 

Francis   Willey   &   Co.,    556   Atlantic    Ave.,  Boston,  Mass.  - 
Top,  foreign  wools. 

John  L.  Farrell,  210  Summer  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Mohair, 
noils,  and  carpet  wools. 

The  J.  R.  Montgomery  Co.,  Windsor  Locks,  Conn.  —  Novelty 
yarns. 

Catlin  &  Co.,  67  Chauncey  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Cotton  yarns. 

Norfolk  Woolen  Co.,  Franklin,  Mass.  —  Shoddies. 

Parker  &  Wilder  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Samples  of  fabrics. 

Lawrence  &  Co.,  Franklin  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Samples  of 
fabrics. 

Joy,  Langdon,  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.  — Samples  of  fabrics. 

Clark  Thread  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J.  —  Exhibit. 

George  A.  Clark  &  Bro.,  400  Broadway,  New  York  —  Cabinet 
and  booklet. 


EXPERIMENTS  321 

Cheney  Bro.,  So.  Manchester,  Conn.  —  Silk  samples,  silk  fabrics. 

Johnson  &  Johnson,   New  Brunswick,   N.   J.  —  Wall  chart  of 
cotton  field. 

Scordill,    902    Canal    St.,    New    Orleans,    La.  —  Cotton   postal 
cards. 

Storey  Cotton  Co.,  The  Bourse,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  —  Booklet, 
All  about  Cotton. 

White   Oak   Cotton   Mills,    Greensboro,    N.    C.  —  Stereoscopic 
views. 

Willimantic  Thread  Co.,  Willimantic,  Conn. 

Flax  Spinning  Co.,   York  St.,   Belfast,   Ireland.  —  Prints  illus- 
trating linen  manufacture  and  samples. 

Jas.  McCutcheon  &  Co.,  5th  Ave.  and  34th  St.,  New  York.  - 
Flax  cabinet. 

The  Linen  Thread  Co.,   96   Franklin  St.,   New  York.  —  Flax 
cabinet. 

Belding  Bro.  &  Co.,  526  Broadway,  New  York.  — School  exhibits 
of  silk. 

Brainerd  &  Armstrong,  100  Union  St.,  New  London,  Conn.  — 
Book  and  cabinet  of  silk. 

Champlain  Silk  Mills,  Whitehall,  N.  Y.  —  Spun  silk  and  exhibits. 

M.  Heminway  &  Sons,   Silk  Co.,  Watertown,  Conn.  —  Book- 
lets on  silk. 

Nonatuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Mass.  —  Sealed  cabinets  and  books 
on  silk. 

William  Skinner  &  Sons.,  47  East  17th  St.,  New  York  City.  - 
Silks  and  satins. 

S.  Miller,  304  Second  Ave.,  New  York.  —  Wool  fiber. 

Milton,  Bradley  Co.,  Springfield,  Mass.  —  Sheep  chart. 

A.  H.  Post,  Quaker  Hill,  New  York.  —  Raw  wool  by  the  pound. 

Schermerhorn  &  Co.,  12  West  33d  St.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 
-  Wall  chart  illustration  of  sheep. 

L.  S.  Watson  Mfg.  Co.,  Worcester,  Mass.  —  Hand  cards. 

Howard  Bros.,  Worcester,  Mass.  —  Hand  cards. 

Prin.  Columbus  Industrial  School,  Columbus,  Ga.  —  Samples  of 
cotton  plant  or  bolls. 


322  EXPERIMENTS 

Woolen  Yarns 

Horstman  Co.,  5th  and  Cherry  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lion  Yarn  Co.,  408  Broadway,  New  York. 

Catalogue  of  Woolen  and  Worsted  Machinery 

C.  G.  Sargent's  Sons  Graniteville,  Mass.  —  Wool  machinery. 

Davis  &  Ferber  Co.,  No.  Andover,  Mass.  —  Woolen  and  wor- 
sted machinery. 

Lowell  Machine  Shop,  Lowell,  Mass.  —  Worsted  machinery. 

Crompton  &  Knowles,  Worcester,  Mass.  —  Worsted  silk  ma- 
chinery. 

Speed  &  Stephenson,  170  Summer  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Tex- 
tile machinery. 

George  Gerry  &  Co.,  Athol,  Mass.  —  Shoddy  machinery. 

Tolhoust,  Machine  Works,  Troy,  N.  Y.  —  Hydro  extractor. 

Parks  &  Woolson  Machine  Co.,  Springfield,  Vt.  —  Machinery. 

Curtis,   Marble  Co.,  Worcester,   Mass.  —  Finishing  machinery. 

General  Electric  Co.,  84  State  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  —  Pictures, 
showing  textile  machinery  in  operation  by  motors. 

Hopkins  Machine  Works,  Budgeton,  R.  I.  — Finishing  machinery. 

Knitting  Machinery 

Scott  &  Williams,  88  Pearl  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Nye  &  Tudick  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Chemicals,  Dyestuffs,  and  Sizing  Materials 

The  Arabol  Mfg.  Co.,  100  Williams  St.,  New  York.  —  Sizing 
materials. 

Cassella  Color  Co.,  182  Front  St.,  New  York.  —  Coal  tar  prod- 
ucts, dyestuffs,  and  literature. 

Arnold  Hoffman  &  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I. — Sizing  materials. 

H.  A.  Metz  &  Co.,  122  Hudson  St.,  New  York.  —  Dyestuffs 
and  literature. 

Badische  Co.,  128  Duane  St.,  New  York.  —  Dyestuffs  and 
literature. 


INDEX 


Acid  test,  239 
Adelaide  wool,  10 
Adulterations  of  wool,  80,  82 
Albatross,  83,  173 
Alma,  219 

Alpaca,  1,  15,  34,  83 
American  cotton,  110 
American  wool,   3 
Angora,  32,  83 
Animal  fibers,  1 
Artificial  fibers,  1 
Artificial  silk,  1,  230 
Asbestos,  1,  234 
Astrakhans,  15,  84 
Australian  wool,  3,  8,  9 
Awning,  173 

Baling  cotton,  117 
Bandanna,  84 
Barege,  219 
Bast  fibers,  193 
Batiste,  173 
Beam,  53 

Beaver  cloth,  52,  84 
Bedford  cord,  84,  174 
Beiber,  219 
Beige,  85 
Bengaline,  219 
Bindings,  84 
Bleaching  cotton,  148 

flax,  196 

thread,  141 
Blending,  11,  31 
Bombazine,  84,  220 


Bottany,  84 

Boucle,  85 

Bourrette,  174 

Bradford  system  of  spinning,  44 

Branding  sheep,  7 

Broadcloth,  52,  85 

Brocade,  219 

Brocatel,  220 

Buckram,  174 

Bunting,  85 

Bur  picker,  30 

Burling,  72 

Burring,  29,  30 

Calendering,  149,  150 
Calico,  175 
Caniche,  86 
Canvas,  177 
Cape  wools,  10 
Carbonizing,    29,  30 
Carding  cotton,  126 

wool,  3,  4 
Carpet  wools,  3,  4 
Cashmere,  85,  86 

goat,  13 

wool,  13,  87 
Castor,  87 
Challis,  87 
Chambray,  177 
Characteristics  of  cotton  cloth,  152 

of  linen  cloth,  196 

of  woolen  cloth,  50 

of  worsted  cloth,  46 
Cheese  cloth,  178 


323 


324 


INDEX 


Chenille,  220 
Cheviot,  33,  35,  52,  87 

wool,  14 
Chiffon,  220 
China  grass,  232 
China  silks,  220 
Chinchilla,  52,  98 
Chintz,  178 
Chudah,  89 
Cloth-rolls,  54 
Clothing  wool,  3 
Cocoons,  203 
Combing  cotton,  127 
Combing  wool,  4,  39 
Combustion  test,  239 
Construction  of  cloth,  70,  71 
Corduroy,  89 
Cote  cheval,  89 
Cotton,  1,  105 

carding,  126 

combing,  127 

drawing,  128 

finishing,  147 

flannel,  178 

growing  countries,  106 

picker,  125 

substitutes,  232 

varieties  of,  105,  106,  111,  112 

yarns,  125,  134 
Cotton-gin,  114-116 
Counts  of  yarn,  9,  49,  51 
Coupure,  90 
Covert  cloth,  90 
Crabbing,  74 
Crash,  178 
Creel,  52 
Crepe,  179,  221 
Crepe  de  Chine,  221 
Crepon,  179 
Cretonne,  90 
Crinoline,  179 
Crocheting,  56,  253 


Cross-dyed,  65,  67,  68 
Cyprian  gold.  234 

Damask,  179 

Dark  colored  fibers,  33 

Dead  wool,  20 

Delaine  wool,  22,  90 

Denim,  179 

Diaper  cloth,  179 

Difference    between    lamb's    wool 

and  sheep's  wool,  20 
Difference  between  wool  and  hair,  2 
Difference     between     woolen     and 

worsted  yarns,  39 
Dimity,  179 
Doeskin,  52,  90 
Domet,  180 
Double-cloth,  58,  62 
Drap  d'Ete",  90 
Dress  faced  fabrics,  8 
Drill,  180 
Duck,  180 

Dusting  operation,  35 
Dyeing,  66 

black  silks,  210 

colored  silks,  210 

cotton,  67 

wools,  65 

yarns,  68,  209 

East  Indian  cotton,  107 

Egyptian  cotton,  108 

Elasticity  of  knitted  textures,  253 

Embroidery  silk,  207 

Empress  cloth,  90 

Ends,  53,  54 

English  system  of  spinning,  4,  40 

English  wools,  3 

Eolienne,  181,  221 

Epingline,  90 

Etamine,  91,  181 

Extract-wool,  1,  32,  37 


INDEX 


325 


Fancy  goods,  79 

Felt,  91 

Felting,  2,  4 

Fibers,  1 

Figure  weaving,  58,  61,  62 

Figured  poplins,  225 

Finishing,  71,  151 

Finishing  hosiery,  163 

Flannel,  52,  91-93 

Flannelette,  181 

Flax,  1,  123 

preparation,  193-195 

sources,  194,  198 
Fleece,  7 
Flocks,  1,  32,  37 
Florentine,  93 
Fly  frames,  130 
Foulard,  221 
Foule,  93 
Frame,  54 

French  system  of  spinning,  4,  44 
Frieze,  52,  93 
Full  blood,  19 
Full  grade  cotton,  121 
Fulling,  73 
Fustian,  180 

Galatea  cloth,  182 

Gauge  weaving,  63 

Gauze,  182 

Gill  boxes,  42 

Gingham,  182 

Ginning  cotton,  114 

Glace,  222 

Gloria,  94 

Goat,  1 

Grades  of  wool,  18 

Granada,  94 

Great  Britain  wools,  12 

Grenadine,  94 

Grinding  rags,  36 

Ground  lace,  164 


Hackling,  195 

Hair,  2 

Half  blood,  19 

Half-grades  of  cotton,  121,  122 

Hand-loom,  56 

Harness,  55 

Heddles,  54 

Hemp,  1,  199 

Henrietta  cloth,  94 

Hoggett  wool,  20 

Homespun,  58,  94 

Hop  sacking,  94 


Hosiery  manufacture,  159-163 
Humidifying  cotton,  124 
Hydro  extractor,  28 

India  silk,  204,  222 
Indigo  blue  flannel,  92 
Inspection  of  cloth,  123,  124 
Intermediate  frame,  130 
Irish  wools,  14 
Italian  cloth,  183 

Jaconet,  183 
Jacquard  machine,  55 
Japanese  silk,  222 
Jeans,  95 
Jersey  cloth,  222 
Jute,  1 

uses  of,  201 

Kapok,  230 
Kersey,  95 
Kerseymere,  96 
Khaki,  183 
Knitting,  253 

cotton,  159 

finishing,  163 

frames,  154 

rib,  158 

silk,  159 


326 


INDEX 


Knitting  stripe,  159 
wool,  3 

Lace,  164,  165 

terms,  166-172 
Lamb's  wool,  15,  20 
Lappet-weaving,  63,  64 
Lawn,  183 
Leicester  wool,  12 
Leno  weaving,  63 
Lincoln  wool,  12 
Linen,  196 
Lingerie,  184 
Linon,  184 
Linsey  woolsey,  96 
Long  cloth,  184 

manufacture  of,  194,  195 
Long  or  clothing  wool,  3 
Loom,  54 
Luster  of  wool,  26 

Mackinaw,  92 

Madras,  185 

Manila  hemp,  200 

Melrose,  97 

Melton,  97 

Meltonette,  97 

Mending,  72 

Mercerizing,  151 

Merino,  2,  3,  18,  19,  97 

Metallic  threads,  1,  234 

Meteor,  222 

Mexican  Sheep,  4 

Milling,  8 

Mineral  fibers,  1 

Mohair,  1,  18,  34,  97 

Moire,  223 

Moisture  contained  in  cotton,  123 

Montagnac,  98 

Montevideo,  11 

Mordant,  69 

Moreen,  186 


Mozambique,  223 
Mule  spinning,  134 
Mull,  186 
Mummery,  186 
Mungo,  1,  10,  32,  34 

method  of  making,  32 
Muslin,  186 

Nainsook,  186 

Naphtha,  26 

Napping,  75 

Navy  twill  flannel,  92 

Netting,  253 

New  Zealand  wool,  10 

Noils,  1,  32,  40 

Norfolkdown  wool,  14 

Oiling  rags,  35 
Olive  oil,  29 
Organdie,  186 
Organzine,  223 
Orleans,  98 
Osnaburg,  186 

Panama  cloth,  98 
Panne  velvet,  223 
Peau  de  soie,  223 
Pelts,  20 
Percale,  188 
Percaline,  188 
Perching,  72 
Peruvian  sheep,  15,  32 
Pick,  54 

Piece-dyeing,  65 
Pile-weave,  62,  63 
Pillow-lace,  165 
Pineapple  fiber,  233 
Pique,  188 
Plain  weave,  58 
Planting  cotton,  110 
Plumetis,  190 
Plushes,  15,  224 


INDEX 


327 


Pongee,  224 
Popeline,  224 
Poplin,  190 
Port  Philip  wool,  9 
Pressing  machine,  76 
Printing  textiles,  65 
Prunella,  98 
Pulled  wool,  20 

Quarter  blood,  19 

Ramie,  232 

Raw  silk,  206 

Reeling  silk,  205 

Remanufactured  material,  1,  32 

Rep,  190 

Rib  work  in  knitting,  158 

Ribbons,  215 

Ring  spinning,  134 

Russian  hemp,  199 

Russian  wool,  12 

Sacking,  99 
Sanglier,  99 
Sarsenet,  225 
Satin,  225 

weaving,  58 
Satine,  190 
Saxony  wool,  8 
Scour,  27 
Scrim,  190 
Scutching,  195 
Sea-island  cotton,  109 
Seaming  rags,  35 
Seamless  hosiery,  161 
Sebastopol,  99 
Serges,  99 
Sewing  silk,  207 
Shaker  flannel,  93 
Shawls,  33 

Sheep  shearing,  5,  6,  7 
Shetland  wool,  14 


Shoddy,  1,  10,  32,  34,  101 
Short  wools,  3 
Shrinking  of  wool,  2,  3 
Shropshiredown  wool,  13 
Shuttle,  55 
Sicilian,  101 
Silesia,  190 
Silesian  wool,  8 
Silk,  1, 

cotton,  230 

dyeing,  210 

finishing,  217 

varieties  of,  207 

warp  flannel,  92 

waste,  207 
Sisal  hemp,  200 
Size  of  yarn,  9,  49,  51 
Sizing,  53 
Slag  wool,  1,  234 
Slasher,  53 
Sliver,  39 
Slubber,  130,  131 
Soleil,  227 
Souffle,  191 

South  American  wool,  11 
Southdown  wools,  13 
Spinning,  4,  40,  44,  50,  134 
Spooler,  53 
Spun  glass,  233 

fibers,  233 
Spun  numbers,  209 
Spun  silk,  208 
Staple  goods,  79 
Starching  cotton,  149 
Stripe  knitting,  159 
Structure  of  wool,  1,  2 
Styles,  70 

Suffolkdown  wool,  14 
Sultane,  101 
Superfines,  8 
Swiss  muslin,  191 
Sydney  wools,  9 


328 


INDEX 


Tabby  velvet,  228 

Taffeta,  227 

Tamise,  101 

Tape,  191 

Tarlatan,  191 

Tartans,  101 

Teaser,  31 

Tentering,  74 

Terry  cloth,  191 

Terry  poplin,  225 

Test  for  animal  fiber,  239 

artificial  silk  from  silk,  231 

cotton  from  linen,  240 

density  of  a  fabric,  239 

dressing,  241 

fastness  against  rain,  243 

fastness  under  friction,  242 

fastness  to  weather,  light,  and 
air,  244 

linen,  240 

permanence  of  dyes,  242 

resistance  to  perspiration,  243 

resistance  to  street  mud  and 
dust,  243 

shoddy,  241 

silk  from  wool,  240 

wasting  fastness,  242 
Testing  constituents  of  filling,  239 

constituents  of  warp,  239 

count  of  warp,  238 

count     of     warp     and     filling 
threads,  238 

elasticity  of  fabric,  237 

for  shrinkage,  239 

piece-dyed  fabric,  69 

strength  of  fabric,  237 

style  of  weave,  236 

yarn-dyed  fabric,  69 
Textile  printing,  69,  70,  216 
Theories     of     coloring     in     textile 

designs,  76-79 
Thibet,  101 


Thread,  138 

bleaching,  143 

combing,  141 

dyeing,  143 

numbers,  144 

sizing,  145 
Throwing,  206 
Thrown  silk,  207 
Tinsel,  1 
Top,  11,  33,  40 
Tricot,  101 
Tulle,  228 
Tussah  silk,  204 
Tweed,  15,  31,  35,  102 
Twill  weaving,  58,  £9 

Union  cloth,  37 

Van  wool  from  Tasmania,    10 

Vegetable  fibers,  1 

Veiling,  102 

Velour,  228 

Velvet,  15,  216,  228 

Vc  Iveteen,  228 

Venetian  cloth,  102 

Vigogne  (Vienna),  103 

Vigoureux,  103 

Voiles,  103,  229 

Warp,  53,  54 
Warp-beam,  54 
Waterproofing,  218 
Weaving,  53,  54,  56 

processes,  54-56 
Weft,  54 
Welsh  wool,  14 
Wether-wool,  15,  20 
Whip-cord,  104 
Wood-pulp,  232 
Wool,  1,  2 

carding,  50 

classing,  3,  16,  18 


INDEX  329 

Wool  drying,  28  Worsted  spinning,  44 

dyeing,  76  tops,  40 

fibers,  2  unfinished,  104 

grease  in,  24  yarn,  33,  46 

marketing,  7,  8,  15 

oiling,  29  Yarn,  33,  39,  46 

sorting,  16-18,  22-24  dyed,  65,  68 

varieties  of,  3,  4  Yolk,  10,  25 

washing,  24-28 

Woolen  yarn,  33,  50  Zephyr  gingham,  192 
Worsted  carding,  39  wool, 

combing,  39  Zibeline,  104 

diagonal,  104 


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